The Overachievement of a Slacker

Sp6 - Literature/Authors (midterm)

2009-01-15T20:18:00.001-05:00

el cuento
• El hijo – Horacio QUiroga
• Mi caballo mago – Sabine R. Ulibarrí
• No oyes ladrar los perros – Juan Rulfo
• La siesta del martes – Gabriel García Márquez
• ¡Adiós, Cordera! – Leopolda Alas, “Clarín”
• Las medias rojas – Emilia Pardo Bazán
• Las ataduras – Carmen Martín Gaite
• El alacrán de fray Gómez – Ricardo Palma
• El Sur – Jorge Luis Borges
• La muerte y la brújula – Jorge Luis Borges
• Continuidad de los parques – Julio Cortázar
• La noche boca arriba – Julio Cortázar
• Chac Mool – Carlos Fuentes
• Un señor muy viejo con unas alas enormes – Gabriel García Márquez
• El ahogado más hermoso del mundo – Gabriel García Márquez
• Dos palabras – Isabel Allende
• Un día de éstos – Gabriel García Márquez
• La viuda de Montiel – Gabriel García Márquez

<span style="font-weight:bold;">el poesía
• Romance del rey moro que perdió Alhama (¡Ay de mi Alhama!) – Anónimo
• Romance del conde Arnaldos – Anónimo
• Romancero gitano – Federico García Lorca
o Romance de la luna, luna
o Romance de la pena negra
o La monja gitana
o Prendimiento de Antoñito el Camborio en el camino de Sevilla
o Muerte de Antoñito el Camborio
o Romance sonámbulo
• Soneto XXIII (“En tanto que de rosa y azucena”) – Garcilaso de la Vega
• Soneto CLXVI (“Mientras por competir con tu cabello”) – Luis de Argote y Góngora
• Un Soneto, dos versiones – Francisco de Quevedo y Villegas
o Salmo XVII, de Un heráclito cristiano (“Miré los muros de la patria mía”)
• En una tempestad – José María Heredia
• Canción del pirata – José de Espronceda
• Poemas de Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer
o Rima IV (“No digáis que agotado su tesoro”)
o Rima XI (“Yo soy ardiente, yo soy morena”)
o Rima LIII (“Volverán las oscuras golondrinas”)
• Poemas de José Martí
o Versos sencillos, I (“Yo soy un hombre sincero”)
o Dos patrias (“Dos patrias tengo yo: Cuba y la noche”)
• Poemas de Rubén Dario
o A Roosevelt
o Cancióñ de otoño en primavera
o Lo fatal
• Poemas de Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
o Quéjase de la suerte: insinúa su aversión a los vicios, y justifica su divertimiento a las Musas (“En perseguirme, Muno, ¿qué interesas?”)
o Sátira filosófica: arguye de inconsecuencia ele gusto y la censura de los hombres que en las mujeres acusan lo que causan (“Hombres necios que acusáis”)
• Poemas de Alfonsina Storni
o Tú me quieres blanca
o Peso ancestral
• A Julia de Burgos – Julia de Burgos
• Autorretrato – Rosario Castellanos
• Poemas de Antonio Machado
o Soledades, II (“He andado muchos caminos”)
o Galerías, XXV (“La primavera besaba”)
o Proverbios y cantares, XXIX (“Caminante, son tus huellas”)
• Poemas de Pablo Neruda
o Poema 15 (“Me gustas cuando callas porque estás como ausente”)
o Walking around (“Sucede que me canso de ser hombre”)
o Oda a la alcachofa
• Poemas de Nicolás Guillén
o Balada de los dos abuelos
o Sensemayá

Sp6 - Poetry Vocab. (midterm)

2009-01-15T20:13:00.001-05:00

La poesía

licencias poéticas
• sinéresis – se unen dos vocales que generalmente no forman diptongo
• diéresis – separar dos vocales que generalmente forman diptongo
• hiato – pronunciar separadamente dos vocales que, aunque pertenciendo a pal\abras diferentes, deberían pronunciarse juntas por sinalefa

figuras patéticas (grupo de figuras de pensamiento) – despertar emociones
• hipérbole – exagerar las cosas aumentando o disminuyendo la verdad de lo que se dice
• personificación (prosopopeya) – atribuir cualidades propias de los seres aimados y corpóreos a los inanimandos y, en particular, atributos humanos a otros seres animados o inanimados
• apóstrofe – el escritor dirige a una determinada persona o a otros seres ya sean animados o inanimados

figuras lógicas (grupo de figuras de pensamiento) – relieve una idea
• símil (comparación) – explícita la semejanza entre dos ideas valiéndose de las partículas “como” y “cual”
• antítesis (contraste) – una contraposición de conceptos; una asociación de conceptos por contraste
• paradoja – una antítesis superada
• sinestesia – una experienceia sensorial en términos de otra
• clímax (gradación) – una cadena o serie de pensamientos que siguen una progresión ascendente o descendente

figuras oblicuas (intencionales) (grupo de figuras de pensamiento) – expresar los pensamientos de un modo indirecto de acuardo con la intención del autor
• perífrasis (circulocución) (rodeo de palabras) – mencionar una persona o cosa cualquiera no dándole su propio nombre, sino el de alguna cualidad o circunstancia suya a fin de que podamos reconocerla

añadiendo palabras (figuras de lenguaje o de dicción)
• epíteto – expresa una cualidad de alguna persona o cosa; [el terrible Caín]

suprimiendo palabras (figuras de lenguaje o de dicción)
• asíndeton – omitir las conjunciones para dar a la frase mayor dinanismo

repitiendo palabras (figuras de lenguaje o de dicción)
• anáfora – una repetición de palabras al principio de un verso o al principio de frases semejantes
• polisíndeton – usar más conjunciones de las necesarías para dar a la frase una mayor solemnidad

combinando las palabras (figuras de lenguaje o de dicción)
• aliteración – una repetición del sonido inicial
• onomatopeya – imitir sonidos reales por medio del ritmo de las palabras
• hipérbaton – invertir el orden acostumbrado de las palabras en la oración

los tropos (lenguaje figurado)
• metonimia – dar a un objeto el nombre de otro por una relación de causa u origen; [“cuna” = “nacimiento”]
• sinécdoque – designar un objeto con el nombre de otro debido a que hay una relación de coexistencia; más usada es la que designa el todo por la parte; es, por lo tanto, una especie de metonimia
• metáfora – el tropo más común; una identificaión de un objeto con otro en virtud de una relación de semejanza que hay entre ellos, es decir, una comparación
• alegoría – una metáfora continuada a lo largo de una composición literaria o parte de ella
• parábola – una narrative que tiene intención didáctica (una enseñanza o lección moral)
• símbolo – una relación entre dos elementos, unos concreto – sensorial – y otro abstracto, de talk manera que el elemento concreto revele lo abstracto; ciertos símbolos usados con frecuencia se convierten en emblemas fácilmente reconocibles; [“la rosa” = “amor”]

Ponting 12 - The Weight of Numbers

2008-11-24T20:47:00.001-05:00

• Europe – period of dramatic growth in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries… followed by a period of much slower growth
o period of rapid growth in population after the mid-eighteenth century largely the result of a decline in mortality levels
o subsequent slackening in growth was result of a fall in birth rates, altering a pattern that had been established for hundreds of generations

• Asia and Africa – story has same start but different ending: period that has seen the highest rates of growth = the twentieth century

• in the Third World – 20th century growth rates on average over 2% a year (far higher than in 19th century Europe)
o fertility higher due to young age and high rate of marriage

• Americas and Oceania – more complex… result of a different series of developments
o sharp rise due to immigration from Europe (especially in 19th century) then by natural increase

• unprecedented rise in human numbers – profound consequences for environment
o increase in number and size of human settlements
o more resources consumed… pollution increased

• until about 1800, traditional limits on food supply set by amount of suitable land available, level of agricultural productivity, amount of trade, social and political factors, and climate

• agriculture of the industrialized world was transformed by increases in productivity

• period after 1850: mechanization of agriculture and the adoption of high input farming

• during 20th century – animal rearing systems more intensive (rather than traditional methods of raising domesticated animals)

• much of large increase in agricultural output in the industrialized world in the last 50 years has come about as a consequence of government intervention

• Third World countries: increasing amounts of land devoted to growing cash crops for export (due to European political control), cultivation more intensive

• “Green Revolution” – ‘solution to the problem of growing enough food to support the expanding population of the Third World’
o not the solution. (has since become apparent)
o combined effect of the extension of the cultivated area and use of more artificial inputs was to increase food production
o gains have been unevenly spread and inadequate to cope with a rapidly increasing population… worst affected area = Africa

• all these changes in food production, trade, and population growth  created an unbalanced world agricultural system

• estimated that a quarter of all the food produced in the United States goes to waste at some point in the production, distribution, and consumption chain

• about half the world’s population are undernourished

• massive loss of natural ecosystems in last two centuries because… huge increase in the amount of land under cultivation, the extension of pasture land into new areas, and the intensification of agriculture

• much of the destruction concentrated on the easiest way of obtaining new agricultural land – clearing the natural forests

• scale of forest destruction has been growing since the Second World War as population in the Third World has risen sharply and the demand for more land has similarly increased

• destruction of tropical forests only offers a short-term solution to the problem of finding more land for agriculture… can alter climate

• in every part of the world, modern agriculture has led to severe soil erosion in the wake of deforestation, ploughing up of grasslands, and the cultivation of steep slopes

• intensification of food production has led to a vast increase in the amount of irrigated land in the world

• Agriculture has always meant disrupting natural ecosystems, but the growing weight of numbers has in many areas turned it into a positively destructive force, threatening ever more marginal and delicate ecosystems with increasingly damaging environmental effects.

HG - Culture Vocabulary Word List - Stanley

2008-09-28T20:23:00.000-04:00

1. acculturation
2. artifact
3. carrying capacity
4. contagious diffusion
5. cultural convergence
6. cultural divergence
7. cultural ecology
8. cultural integration
9. cultural lag
10. cultural landscape
11. culture
12. culture complex
13. culture hearth
14. culture realm
15. culture region
16. culture trait
17. diffusion barrier
18. environmental determinism
19. expansion diffusion
20. hierarchical diffusion
21. hunter-gatherer
22. ideological subsystem
23. independent invention
24. innovation
25. mentifact
26. multilinear evolution
27. possiblism
28. relocation diffusion
29. sociofact
30. sociological subsystem
31. spatial diffusion
32. syncretism
33. technological subsystem
34. cultural geography
35. cultural imperialism
36. denomination
37. diaspora
38. ethnic cleansing
39. ethnic neighborhood
40. evangelical religions
41. fundamentalism
42. genocide
43. global religion
44. Indo-European family
45. language group
46. literacy
47. local religion
48. minority
49. missionary
50. animism
51. Buddhism
52. caste
53. Christianity
54. Confucianism
55. Creole
56. dialect
57. ethnic religion
58. geographic (regional) dialect
59. Hinduism
60. Judaism
61. language
62. language family
63. lingua franca
64. linguistic geography
65. monotheism
66. multilingualism
67. official language
68. pidgin language
69. polytheism
70. protolanguage
71. religion
72. Secularism
73. Shamanism
74. Shinto
75. social dialect
76. speech community
77. standard language
78. syncretism
79. Taoism
80. toponym
81. toponymy
82. tribal (traditional) religion
83. universalizing religion
84. vernacular
85. Islam
86. isogloss
87. Romance languages
88. Sino-Tibetan family
89. tradition
90. build environment
91. folk culture
92. folkways
93. nonmaterial culture
94. popular region
95. custom
96. folklore
97. material culture
98. pilgrimage
99. acculturation
100. amalgamation theory
101. assimilation
102. behavioral assimilation
103. chain migration
104. charter group
105. cluster migration
106. colony
107. culture rebound
108. ethnic enclave
109. ethnic geography
110. ethnic group
111. ethnic island
112. ethnic province
113. ethnicity
114. ethnocentrism
115. first effective settlement
116. genetic drift
117. ghetto
118. host society
119. race
120. segregation
121. social distance
122. structural assimilation
123. adaptation
124. popular culture
125. multicultural
126. core
127. domain
128. Ecological Trilogy
129. formal region
130. functional region
131. perceptual region
132. region
133. vernacular region
134. regional identity
135. sphere
136. barriers to diffusion
137. biased innovations
138. contagious effects
139. urban hierarchy
140. cultural extinction
141. cultural imperialism
142. local religion
143. Shaman
144. tipping point
145. vernacular house
146. language extinction
147. hearths
148. relocation diffusion
149. British Received Pronunciation (BRP)
150. Ebonics
151. ideograms
152. oral tradition
153. fundamentalism
154. global religions
155. centrifugal forces
156. province
157. irredenta
158. irredentism
159. shatterbelt
160. custom
161. habit
162. taboo
163. terroir
164. extinct language
165. Franglais
166. isolated language
167. language branch
168. literary tradition
169. Spanglish
170. Vulgar Latin
171. autonomous religion
172. cosmogony
173. diocese
174. hierarchical religion
175. sect
176. solstice
177. apartheid
178. balkanization
179. blockbusting
180. centripetal force
181. multi-ethnic state
182. multinational state
183. nationalism
184. nationality
185. nation-state
186. racism
187. racist
188. self-determination
189. sharecropper
190. triangular slave trade

VA - So You Want to Write a Letter to Your Member of Congress...

2008-09-19T23:05:00.001-04:00

So You Want to Write a Letter to Your Member of Congress?

Writing letters to your representative or senator can influence how that person will vote on a particular issue. Although many political organizations do rely on sending out mass form letters, personalized letters get the attention of the politician’s staff much more often. Here are some tips for writing such letters.

• Make sure to include your address. In the top right corner of the page, print your full address, and phone number, so that you can be contacted if necessary. This is especially important if you are asking for a reply from this member of Congress. You can also include the date below your phone number. It’s important to always date the letter when you write it..

• After writing your address, write the address of the person to whom you are sending the letter. First write his or her full name (including title, ex. “The Hon….”), followed by his or her full address.

• Use proper salutations. (“The Honorable” for judges and representatives, etc.).

• It is often a good idea to start off with “I am writing as a constituent..."(or some similar phrase). Writing to your senators/representatives is significantly more effective than writing to other members… if you’re not in their district, your opinion on an issue won’t matter to them.

• Present the issue – the reason you’re writing this letter – at the very beginning of the letter.

• Focus only on one issue in a letter. If there are multiple issues you would like to bring to this representative or senator’s attention, you can send additional letters.

• Be specific about what action you want him or her to take. Express your concern, but make sure that it is a simple request – voting for a particular bill, co-sponsoring a bill, etc. Don’t just say that you want them to “do something.”

• The second paragraph should give some brief background of the issue, and tell why it is important to you that he or she acts on the matter in a particular way.

• Next, your third paragraph should reiterate your request. If you want him or her to vote for/against an issue, remember to say that again here.

• Accountability is important! Here at the end is a good place to put something along the lines of “I would appreciate it if you would let me know your action on this matter” or something similar.

• Finally, make sure that you end your letter correctly, with a phrase such as “Sincerely.” It’s also important to note that you should type your name, but also make sure to sign the letter as well.

• Make the letter brief and to the point. Avoid excess information and comments. A letter should be no more than one printed page.

• Send your letter as soon as it is finished – don’t put off mailing it!

• Be polite!! Use respectful language. Never make any threats or insults. Don’t use profanity.

• Make sure that it is readable! The letter should be legible and neat in appearance. There should be no spelling or grammatical issues. If possible, try to re-read the letter aloud several times (not all in a row), to make sure that it sounds appropriate and understandable.

In addition to letters, you can always send an e-mail, fax, postcard, etc. If you would like to make a telephone call to a member of Congress, you can call the Capitol Switchboard at 1 (202) 224 – 3121 to get his or her telephone number.

HG - Reading Assignments - Stanley

2008-09-17T19:31:00.002-04:00

The formatting won't work here at all, but I have the reading assignments on a chart with the dates and all the books listed so it's easy to see what is "due" on what parts of each book we're reading. I have this as a nice chart on Microsoft Word, if anyone wants me to send it to them.

Also, this is for her B day class, but A day would be the first day before that mentioned that we have school.

AaP - Basic Chemistry - Wise

2008-09-14T22:29:00.001-04:00

Basic Chemistry

• Acid/Base Chemistry
o Acids are proton donors. They release hydrogen into a solution.
o Acids are hydrogen donors. They release protons into a solution.
o Bases are hydrogen acceptors.
o Bases are proton acceptors.
o as the pH increases, a substance becomes more basic

• pH scale
o the pH scale is an inverse log scale
- pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration
- the greater the pH, the fewer H+
- the Richter and decibel scales are also log scales
o each whole number represents the number of hydrogen ions divided by 10 (H+ / 10)
- for example…a substance with a pH of 1 has 10x more H+ than pH 2
- for example…pH 1 has 100x more H+ than pH 3
- for example… a substance with a pH of 12 has a H+ concentration that is 100x that of a substance with a pH of 14
- pH 0 = 1 [H+]
- pH 1 =1 / 10 [H+]
- pH 2 = 1 / 100[H+]
- pH 5 = 1 / 100000[H+]
- pH 14 = 1 / 100000000000000[H+]
- pH of saliva = 6.5
- pH of blood = 7.4
- most foods we eat are neutral or acidic. Why? Stomach is acidic… thus the food is in balance with stomach physiology. Basic substances often have an unpleasant taste.

• enzymes
o enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction

• organic compounds
o protein
o carbohydrates
o lipids
o nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, ATP…)

HG - Introduction Vocabulary - Stanley

2008-09-02T04:37:00.002-04:00

AP Human Geography Vocabulary Words – Introduction

• anthropogenic
o human-induced changes on the natural environment

• cartography
o the production of maps, including construction of projections, design, compilation, drafting, and reproduction.

• cultural ecology
o the study of the interactions between societies and the natural environments
they occupy

• cultural landscape
o the natural landscape as modified by human activities and bearing the imprint of a culture group or society
o the built environment

• earth system science
o systematic approach to physical geography that looks at the interaction between the earth’s physical systems and processes on a global scale

• environmental geography
o the intersection between human and physical geography, which explores the spatial impacts humans have on the physical environment and vice versa

• Eratosthenes
o the head librarian at Alexandria during the third century BC
o one of the first cartographers
o performed a remarkably accurate computation of the earth’s circumference
o credited with coining the term “geography”

• Fertile Crescent
o name given to crescent-shaped area of fertile land stretching from the lower Nile valley, along the east Mediterranean coast, and into Syria and present-day Iraq where agriculture and early civilization first began about 8000 BC

• Geographical Information Systems
o integrated computer programs for handling, processing, and analyzing data specifically referenced to the surface of the earth
o (GIS)

• Global Positioning System
o a set of satellites used to help determine location anywhere on the earth’s surface with a portable electronic device

• idiographic
o pertaining to the unique facts or characteristics of a particular place

• George Perkins Marsh
o inventor, diplomat, politician, and scholar
o his classic work, Man and Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action, provided the first description of the extent to which natural systems had been impacted by human actions

• natural landscape
o the physical environment unaffected by human activities
o the duration and near totality of human occupation of the earth’s surface assure that little or no “natural landscape” so defined remains intact
o opposed to cultural landscape

• nomothetic
o concepts or rules that can be applied universally

• W.D. Pattison
o claimed that geography drew from four distinct traditions: the earth-science tradition, the culture-environment tradition, the locational tradition, and the area-analysis tradition

• physical geography
o the study of the structures, processes, distribution, and change through time of the natural phenomena of the earth’s surface that are significant to human life
o one of the two major divisions (the other is human geography) of systematic geography

• Ptolemy
o Roman geographer-astronomer
o author of Guide to Geography which included maps containing a grid system of latitude and longitude

• qualitative data
o data associated with a more humanistic approach to geography, often collected through interview, empirical observations, or the interpretation of texts, artwork, old maps, and other archives

• quantitative data
o data associated with mathematical models and statistical techniques used to analyze spatial location and association

• quantitative revolution
o a period in human geography associated with the widespread adoption of mathematical models and statistical techniques

• region
o any earth area with distinctive and unifying physical or cultural characteristics that set it off and make it substantially different from surrounding areas
o may be defined on the basis of its homogeneity or its functional integration as a single organizational unit
o regions and their boundaries are devices of areal generalization, intellectual concepts rather than visible landscape entities

• regional geography
o the study of geographic regions
o the study of areal differentiation

• remote sensing
o observation and mathematical measurement of the earth’s surface using aircraft satellites
o the sensors include both photographic images, thermal images, multispectral scanners, and radar images

• Carl Saucer
o geographer from the University of California at Berkeley
o defined the concept of cultural landscape as the fundamental unit of geographical analysis
o this landscape results from interaction between humans and the physical environment
o he argued that virtually no landscape as escaped alteration by human activities

• sense of place
o feelings evoked by people as a result of certain experiences and memories associated with a particular place

• spatial perspective
o an intellectual framework that looks at the particular locations of specific phenomena, how and why that phenomena is where it is, and, finally, how it is spatially related to phenomena in other places

• sustainability
o the concept of using the earth’s resources in such a way that they provide for people’s needs in the present without diminishing the earth’s ability to provide for future generations

• systematic geography
o a division of geography that selects a particular aspect of the physical or cultural environment for detailed study of its areal differentiation and interrelationships
o branches are labeled according to the topic studied (e.g., recreational geography) or the related science with which the branch is associated (e.g., economic geography)

• thematic layers
o individual maps of specific features that are overlaid on one another in a Geographical Information System to understand and analyze a spatial relationship

• absolute distance
o the shortest-path separation between two places measured on a standard unit of length (miles or kilometers, usually)
o a.k.a. real distance

• absolute location
o the exact position of an object or place stated in spatial coordinates of a grid system designed for locational purposes
o in geography, the reference system is the globe grid of parallels of latitude north or south of the equator and of meridians of longitude east or west of a prime meridian
o absolute globe locations are cited in degrees, minutes, and (for greater precision) seconds of latitude and longitude north or south and east or west of the equatorial and prime meridian base lines

• accessibility
o the relative ease with which a destination may be reached from other locations
o the relative opportunity for spatial interaction
o may be measured in geometric, social, or economic terms

• Azimuthal projection
o (planar projection)
o a map projection employing a plane as the presumed developable surface

• breaking point
o the outer edge of a city’s sphere of influence
o used in the law of retail gravitation to describe the area of a city’s hinterlands that depend on that city for it’s retail supply

• cartogram
o a map that has been simplified to present a single idea in a diagrammatic way
o the base is not normally true to scale

• choropleth map
o a thematic map presenting spatial data as average values per unit area

• cognitive map
o (mental map)
o the maplike image of the world, country, region, city, or neighborhood a person carries in mind
o the representation is therefore subjective
o it includes knowledge of actual locations and spatial relationships and is colored by personal perceptions and preferences related to a place

• complementarity
o the actual or potential relationship of two places or regions that each produce different goods or services for which the other has an effective demand, resulting in a n exchange between the locales

• connectivity
o the directness of routes linking pairs of places
o an indication of the degree of internal connection in a transport network
o more generally, all of the tangible and intangible means of connection and communication between places

• contagious diffusion
o a form of expansion diffusion that depends on direct contact
o the process of dispersion is centrifugal, strongly influenced by stance and dependent on interaction between actual and potential adopters of the innovation

• coordinate system
o a standard grid, composed of lines of latitude and longitude, used to determine the absolute location of any object, place, or feature on the earth’s surface

• distance decay effect
o the declining intensity of any activity, process, or function with increasing distance from its point of origin

• dot maps
o thematic maps that use points to show the precise locations of specific observations or occurrences, such as crimes, car accidents, or births

• expansion diffusion
o the spread of ideas, behaviors, or articles through a culture area or from one culture to neighboring areas through contact and exchange of information
o the dispersion leaves the phenomenon in tact or intensified in its area of origin

• friction of distance
o a measure of the retarding or restricting effect of distance on spatial interaction
o generally, the greater the distance, the greater the “friction” and the less the interaction or exchange, or the greater the cost of achieving the exchange

• Fuller projection
o a type of map projection that maintains the accurate size and shape of landmasses but completely rearranges direction such that the four cardinal directions – north, south, east, and west – no longer have any meaning

• geoid
o the actual shape of the earth, which is rough and oblate, or slightly squashed
o the earth’s circumference is longer around the equator then it is along the meridians, from north-south circumference

• Gravity model
o a mathematical prediction of the interaction between two bodies (places) as a function of their size and o the distance separating them
o attraction (interaction) is proportional to the product of the masses (population sizes) of two bodies (places) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

• hazards
o anything in the landscape, real or perceived, that is potentially threatening
o usually avoided in spatial behavior

• hierarchical diffusion
o a form of diffusion in which the spread of an innovation can proceed either upward or downward through a hierarchy

• International Date Line
o by international agreement, the designated line where each new day begins, generally following the 180th meridian
o compensates for accumulated 1-hour time changes for each 15 degrees of longitude by adding (from east to west) or subtracting (from west to east) 24 hours for travelers crossing the line

• intervening opportunity
o the concept that closer opportunities will materially reduce the attractiveness of interaction with more distant – even slightly better – alternatives
o a closer alternative source of supply between a demand point and the original source of supply

• isoline
o a map line connecting points of equal value

• large-scale
o a relatively small ration between map units and ground units
o these maps usually have higher resolution and cover much smaller regions than small-scale maps

• latitude
o angular distance north or south of the equator
o measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds

• law of retail gravitation
o law that states that people will be drawn to larger cities to conduct their business because larger cities have a wider influence on the hinterlands that surround them

• location charts
o on a map, a chart or graph that gives specific statistical information of a particular political unit or jurisdiction

• longitude
o angular distance of a location in degrees , minutes, and seconds measured east or west of a designated prime meridian given the value of 0

• map projections
o a systematic method of transferring the globe grid system from the earth’s curved surface to the flat surface of a map
o automatically incurs error, but an attempt is usually made to preserve one or more (though never all) of the characteristics of the spherical surface: equal area, correct distance, true direction, proper shape

• Mercator projection
o a true conformal cylindrical projection first published in 1569
o useful for navigation

• meridian
o a north-south line of longitude
o on the globe grid, all meridians are of equal length and converge at the poles

• parallel
o an east-west line of latitude indicating distance north or south of the equator

• preference map
o a map that displays individual preferences for certain places

• Prime Meridian
o an imaginary line passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, serving by agreement as the 0 line of longitude

• proportional symbols map
o a thematic map in which the size of a chosen symbol – such as a circle or triangle – indicates the relative magnitude of some statistical value for a given geographic region

• reference map
o a map type that shows reference information for a particular place, making it useful for finding landmarks and for navigating

• relative distance
o a transformation of absolute distance into such relative measures as time or monetary costs
o such measures yield different explanations of human spatial behavior than do linear distances alone
o distances between places are constant by absolute terms, but relative distances may vary with improvements in transportation or communication technology or with different psychological perceptions of space

• relative location
o the position of a place or activity in relation to other places or activities
o implies spatial relationships and usually suggests the relative advantages or disadvantages of a location with respect to all competing locations

• relocation diffusion
o the transfer of ideas, behaviors, or articles from one place to another through the migration of those possessing the feature transported
o spatial relocation in which a phenomenon leaves an area of origin as it is transported to a new location

• resolution
o a map’s smallest discernable unit
o if, for example, an object has to be one kilometer long in order to show up on a map, then that map’s resolution is one kilometer

• Robinson projection
o projection that attempts to balance several possible projection errors
o it does not maintain completely accurate area, shape, distance, or direction, but it minimizes errors in each

• scale
o in cartography, the ratio between the size of area on a map and the actual size of that same area on the earth’s surface
o in more general terms, scale refers to the size of the area studied, from local to global

• site
o the absolute location of a place or activity described by local relief, landform, and other physical (or sometimes cultural) characteristics

• situation
o the relative location of a place or activity in relation to the physical and cultural characteristics of the larger regional or spatial system of which it is a part
o implies spatial interconnection and interdependence

• small-scale
o map scale ration in which the ration of units on the mpa to units on the earth is qute small
o usually depict large areas

• spatial diffusion
o (diffusion)
o the spread or movement of a phenomenon over space or through time
o the dispersion of a culture trait or characteristic or new ideas and practices from an origin area
o recognized types include relocation, expansion, contagious, and hierarchical diffusion

• thematic map
o a map depicting a specific spatial distribution or statistical variation of abstract objects (e.g., unemployment) in space

• time-space convergence
o the idea that distance between some places is actually shrinking as technology enables more rapid communication and increased interaction between those places

• topographic maps
o maps that use isolines to represent constant elevations
o if you took a topographic map out into the field and walked exactly along the path of an isoline on your map, you would always stay at the same elevation

• topological space
o the amount of connectivity between places, regardless of the absolute distance separating them

• transferability
o acceptable costs of a spatial exchange
o the cost of moving a commodity relative to the ability of the commodity to bear that cost

• visualization
o use of sophisticated software to create dynamic computer maps, some of which are three-dimensional or interactive

• aggregation *
o the process by which data values are collected with the intent to manage the collection as a single unit

• geographic information *
o any information that can be geographically referenced
o i.e., describing a location or any information that can be linked to a location
o (a.k.a. spatial information)

• human/environmental interaction *
o all the effects (positive and negative) that occur when people interact with their surroundings

• Human Geography
o the spatial analysis of human populations, their cultures, their activities and behaviors, and their relationship with and impact on the physical landscapes they occupy
o one of two major divisions (the other is physical geography) of systematic geography

• isolines map *
o a map with continuous lines joining points of the same value
o used to interpret the information on some thematic maps

• legend *
o a key to what the symbols or pictures in a map mean

• location *
o deals with the relative and absolute spatial position of natural and human-made phenomena

• map *
o a graphic representation of the earth’s surface

• movement *
o deals with the migration, transport, communication, and interaction of natural and human-made phenomena across the spatial dimension

• place *
o describes the factors that make the location of natural and human-made phenomena unique

• primary data *
o data that was collected specifically for the purpose of a researcher’s particular study

• secondary data *
o data that was not specifically collected for the purpose of a researcher’s particular study

• simplification * *
o make a geographical map less complicated and complex

• spatial data *
o the data or information that identifies the geographic location of features and boundaries on Earth
o usually stored as coordinates and topology
o is data that can be mapped
o often accessed, manipulated, or analyzed through Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

• absolute direction
o direction with respect to cardinal east, west, north, and south reference points

• concentration
o in spatial distributions, the clustering of a phenomenon around a central location

• density
o the quantity of anything (people, buildings, animals, traffic, etc.) per unit area

• dispersion
o in spatial distributions, a statement of the amount of spread of a phenomenon over area or around a central location
o dispersion in this sense represents a continuum from clustered, concentrated, or agglomerated (at one end) to dispersed or scattered (at the other)

• formal region
o a region distinguished by a uniformity of one or more characteristics that an serve as the basis for areal generalization and of contrast with adjacent areas

• functional region
o a region differentiated by what occurs within it rather than by a homogeneity of physical or cultural phenomena
o an earth area recognized as an operational unit based upon defined organization criteria
o the concept of unity is based on interaction and interdependence between different points within the area

• mental map
o (cognitive map)
o the maplike image of the world, country, region, city, or neighborhood a person carries in mind
o the representation is therefore subjective
o it includes knowledge of actual locations and spatial relationships and is colored by personal perceptions and preferences related to a place

• model
o an idealized representation, abstraction, or simulation of reality
o designed to simplify real-world complexity and eliminate extraneous phenomena in order to isolate for detailed study causal factor and interrelationships of spatial systems

• nodal region
o (functional region)
o a region differentiated by what occurs within it rather than by a homogeneity of physical or cultural phenomena
o an earth area recognized as an operational unit based upon defined organization criteria
o the concept of unity is based on interaction and interdependence between different points within the area

• pattern
o the design or arrangement of phenomena in earth space

• perceptual region
o a region perceived to exist by its inhabitants or the general populace
o has reality as an element of popular culture or folk culture represented in the mental maps of average people

• projection
o (map projection)
o a systematic method of transferring the globe grid system from the earth’s curved surface to the flat surface of a map
o automatically incurs error, but an attempt is usually made to preserve one or more (though never all) of the characteristics of the spherical surface: equal area, correct distance, true direction, proper shape

• regional concept
o the view that physical and cultural phenomena on the surface of the earth are rationally arranged by complex, diverse, but comprehensible interrelated spatial processes

• relative direction
o a culturally based locational reference, as the Far West, the Old South, or the Middle East

• spatial distribution
o the arrangement of things ion the earth’s surface
o the descriptive elements of spatial distribution are density, dispersion, and pattern

• spatial interaction
o the movement (e.g., of people, goods, information) between different places
o an indication of interdependence between different geographic locations or areas

• spatial system
o the arrangement and integrated operation of phenomena produced by or responding to spatial processes on the earth’s surface

• uniform region
o (formal region)
o a region distinguished by a uniformity of one or more characteristics that an serve as the basis for areal generalization and of contrast with adjacent areas

HG - Geographical Themes - Stanley

2008-09-02T04:31:00.003-04:00

GEOGRAPHICAL THEMES

There are 5 themes that geographers use to organize space:
1. location (where?)
2. places (what is it like?)
3. human and environment interaction (relationship?)
4. movement (of ideas, people, goods)
5. regions (how/why an area is similar to another)

3 important questions about a space:
1. Where is it?
2. Why is it there?
3. What are the consequences of it being there?

Location
• absolute location – latitude/longitude – coordinates?
• relative location – in relation to other areas – how is this location relative to other places?
• How does the importance of this location change over time?

Place
• characteristics of this place that make it different from other places

• physical characteristics
o the natural environment
o examples…
- green areas
- creek
- large body of water (river)
- animals (indigenous, usually)
- vegetation

• human characteristic
o ideas (naming something) and actions (building something)
o examples…
- baseball field, football field
- parking lot, bridges, roads
- language, religion, political ideas
- architecture
- population density
- named both the physical and human characteristics

• man’s names = political (can be changed)
- “no human characteristics”… is a characteristic
• How would you describe it physically?
• What are some of the human characteristics that describe the place?

Human/Environment Interaction
• environment: all living and nonliving things
• humans weaker than the environment
• the environment provides everything
• How has man interacted with the land he’s decided to live on?
• examples…
o added important facilities…
- hospital, school
- church, cemetery = some kind of established religion
- factories
- shopping center = big enough area, money-wise
- tried to even out areas (not all clumped on one part of the land)
o farming – near water
o reservoir
- power?
- steady water supply
o neighborhoods
- organized enough – some kind of town plan

• man can deal with the environment in 3 ways:
o depend on it
- for food, shelter, clothing
o modify it
- for their needs
- example – damming the river to make a reservoir; bridges on creek
o adapt to it
- example – heavy coat for cold weather; lighter or darker cars; air conditioning or heating; how they build their homes (chimney inside or outside, etc.)

Movement
• How/why places are connected
o roads, railroads, airports
o power lines, satellite dishes, radio towers
o creeks, rivers
• people, goods, ideas
• constant!
• a place without good movement will not survive
• Examples of movement in the area?
• Forms of transportation in the space?
• How does the movement affect immigration?

Regions
• no definition until located around something else
• different types/examples…
o town, part of a town
o type of housing, education
o industrial areas
o “Rocky Mountains”
o “Bible Belt”
• can be named by human characteristics
o “Big Apple”
- skyscrapers, tourist areas, Broadway, the subway, taxis, shopping, museums, sports, etc.
• boundaries are usually vague… moveable
• a place can be in multiple regions at one time (has to be in at least one… but can be in many, many more): every area is in a region

Sp6 - Mi Caballo Mago text - Calvar

2008-08-27T18:31:00.002-04:00

Probably accurate?

Mi caballo mago
por Sabine R. Ulibarrí

Era blanco. Blanco como el olvido. Era libre. Libre como la alegría. Era la ilusión, la libertad y la emoción. Poblaba y dominaba las serranías y las llanuras de las cercanías. Era un caballo blanco que llenó mi juventud de fantasía y poesía.

Alrededor de las fogatas del campo y en las resolanas del pueblo los vaqueros de esas tierras hablaban de él con entusiasmo y admiración. Y la mirada se volvía turbia y borrosa de ensueño. La animada charla se apagaba. Todos atentos a la visión evocada. Mito del reino animal. Poema del mundo viril.

Blanco y arcano. Paseaba su harén por el bosque de verano en regocijo imperial. El invierno decretaba el llano y la ladera para sus hembras. Veraneaba como rey de oriente en su jardín silvestre. Invernaba como guerrero ilustre que celebra la victoria ganada.

Era leyenda. Eran sin fin las historias que se contaban del caballo brujo. Unas verdad, otras invención. Tantas trampas, tantas redes, tantas expediciones. Todas venidas a menos. El caballo siempre se escapaba, siempre se burlaba, siempre se alzaba por encima del dominio de los hombres. ¡Cuánto valedor no juró ponerle su jáquima y su marca para confesar después que el brujo había sido más hombre que él!

Yo tenía quince años. Y sin haberlo visto nunca el brujo me llenaba ya la imaginación y la esperanza. Escuchaba embobado a mi padre y a sus vaqueros hablar del caballo fantasma que al atraparlo se volvía espuma y aire y nada. Participaba de la obsesión de todos, ambición de lotería, de algún día ponerle yo mi lazo, de hacerlo mío, y lucirlo los domingos por la tarde cuando las muchachas salen a paseo por la calle.

Pleno el verano. Los bosques verdes, frescos y alegres. Las reses lentas, gordas y luminosas en la sombra y en el sol de agosto. Dormitaba yo en un caballo brioso, lánguido y sutil en el sopor del atardecer. Era hora ya de acercarse a la majada, al buen pan y al rancho del rodeo. Ya los compañeros estarían alrededor de la hoguera agitando la guitarra, contando cuentos del pasado o de hoy o entregándose al cansancio de la tarde. El sol se ponía ya, detrás de mí, en escándalos de rayo y color. Silencio orgánico y denso.

Sigo insensible a las reses al abra. De pronto el bosque se calla. El silencio enmudece. La tarde se detiene. La brisa deja de respirar, pero tiembla. El sol se excita. El planeta, la vida y el tiempo se han detenido de una manera inexplicable. Por un instante no sé lo que pasa.

Luego mis ojos aciertan. ¡Allí está! ¡El caballo mago! Al extremo del abra, en un promontorio, rodeado de verde. Hecho estatua, hecho estampa. Línea y forma y mancha blanca en fondo verde. Orgullo, fama y arte en carne animal. Cuadro de belleza encendida y libertad varonil. Ideal invicto y limpio de la eterna ilusión humana. Hoy palpito todo aún al recordarlo.

Silbido. Reto trascendental que sube y rompe la tela virginal de las nubes rojas. Orejas lanzas. Ojos rayos. Cola viva y ondulante, desafío movedizo. Pezuña tersa y destructiva. Arrogante majestad de los campos.

El momento es eterno. La eternidad momentánea. Ya no está, pero siempre estará. Debió de haber yeguas. Yo no las vi. Las reses siguen indiferentes. Mi caballo las sigue y yo vuelvo lentamente del mundo del sueño a la tierra del sudor. Pero ya la vida no volverá a ser lo que antes fue.

Aquella noche bajo las estrellas no dormí. Soñé. Cuánto soñé despierto y cuánto soñé dormido yo no sé. Sólo sé que un caballo blanco pobló mis sueños y los llenó de resonancia y de luz y de violencia.

Pasó el verano y entró el invierno. El verde pasto dio lugar a la blanca nieve. Las manadas bajaron de las sierras a los valles y cañadas. Y en el pueblo se comentaba que el brujo andaba por este o aquel rincón. Yo indagaba por todas partes su paradero. Cada día se me hacía más ideal, más imagen, más misterio.

Domingo. Apenas rayaba el sol de la sierra nevada. Aliento vaporoso. Caballo tembloroso de frío y de ansias. Como yo. Salí sin ir a misa. Sin desayunarme siquiera. Sin pan y sardinas en las alforjas. Había dormido mal y velado bien. Iba en busca de la blanca luz que galopaba en mis sueños.

Al salir del pueblo al campo libre desaparecen los caminos. No hay rastro humano o animal. Silencio blanco, hondo y rutilante. Mi caballo corta el camino con el pecho y deja estela eterna, grieta abierta, en la mar cana. La mirada diestra y atenta puebla el paisaje hasta cada horizonte buscando el noble perfil del caballo místico.

Sería mediodía. No sé. El tiempo había perdido su rigor. Di con él. En una ladera contaminada de sol. Nos vimos al mismo tiempo. Juntos nos hicimos piedra. Inmóvil, absorto y jadeante contemplé su belleza, su arrogancia, su nobleza. Esculpido en mármol, se dejó admirar.

Silbido violento que rompe el silencio. Guante arrojado a la cara. Desafío y decreto a la vez. Asombro nuevo. El caballo que en verano se coloca entre la amenaza y la manada, oscilando a distancia de diestra a siniestra, ahora se lanza a la nieve. Más fuerte que ellas, abre la vereda a las yeguas. y ellas lo siguen. Su fuga es lenta para conservar sus fuerzas.

Sigo. Despacio. Palpitante. Pensando en su inteligencia. Admirando su valentía. Apreciando su cortesía. La tarde se alarga. Mi caballo cebado a sus anchas.

Una a una las yeguas se van cansando. Una a una se van quedando a un lado. ¡Solos! El y yo. La agitación interna reboza a los labios. Le hablo. Me escucha y calla.

El abre el camino y yo sigo por la vereda que me deja. Detrás de nosotros una larga y honda zanja blanca que cruza la llanura. El caballo que ha comido grano y buen pasto sigue fuerte. A él, mal nutrido, se la han agotado las fuerzas. Pero sigue porque es él y porque no sabe ceder.

Encuentro negro y manchas negras por el cuerpo. La nieve y el sudor han revelado la piel negra bajo el pelo. Mecheros violentos de vapor rompen el aire. Espumarajos blancos sobre la blanca nieve. Sudor, espuma y vapor. Ansia.

Me sentí verdugo. Pero ya no había retorno. La distancia entre nosotros se acortaba implacablemente. Dios y la naturaleza indiferentes.

Me siento seguro. Desato el cabestro. Abro el lazo. Las riendas tirantes. Cada nervio, cada músculo alerta y el alma en la boca. Espuelas tensas en ijares temblorosos. Arranca el caballo. Remolineo el cabestro y lanzo el lazo obediente.

Vértigo de furia y rabia. Remolinos de luz y abanicos de transparente nieve. Cabestro que silba y quema en la teja de la silla. Guantes violentos que humean. Ojos ardientes en sus pozos. Boca seca. Frente caliente. Y el mundo se sacude y se estremece. Y se acaba la larga zanja blanca en un ancho charco blanco.

Sosiego jadeante y denso. El caballo mago es mío. Temblorosos ambos, nos miramos de hito en hito por un largo rato. Inteligente y realista, deja de forcejar y hasta toma un paso hacia mí. Yo le hablo. Hablándole me acerco. Primero recula. Luego me espera. Hasta que los dos caballos se saludan a la manera suya. Y por fin llego a alisarle la crin. Le digo muchas cosas, y parece que me entiende.

Por delante y por las huellas de antes lo dirigí hacia el pueblo. Triunfante. Exaltado. Una risa infantil me brotaba. Yo, varonil, la dominaba. Quería cantar y pronto me olvidaba. Quería gritar pero callaba. Era un manojo de alegría. Era el orgullo del hombre adolescente. Me sentí conquistador.

El Mago ensayaba la libertad una y otra vez, arrancándome de mis meditaciones abruptamente. Por unos instantes se armaba la lucha otra vez. Luego seguíamos.

Fue necesario pasar por el pueblo. No había remedio. Sol poniente. Calles de hielo y gente en los portales. El Mago lleno de terror y pánico por la primera vez. Huía y mi caballo herrado lo detenía. Se resbalaba y caía de costalazo. Yo lloré por él. La indignidad. La humillación. La alteza venida a menos. Le rogaba que no forcejara, que se dejara llevar. ¡Cómo me dolió que lo vieran así los otros!

Por fin llegamos a la casa. “¿Qué hacer contigo, Mago? Si te meto en el establo o en el corral, de seguro te haces daño. Además sería un insulto. No eres esclavo. No eres criado. Ni siquiera eres animal.” Decidí soltarlo en el potrero. Allí podría el Mago irse acostumbrando poco a poco a mi amistad y compañía. De ese potrero no se había escapado nunca un animal.

Mi padre me vio llegar y me esperó sin hablar. En la cara le jugaba una sonrisa y en los ojos le bailaba una chispa. Me vio quitarle el cabestro al Mago y los dos lo vimos alejarse, pensativos. Me estrechó la mano un poco más fuerte que de ordinario y me dijo: “Esos son hombres.” Nada más. Ni hacía falta. Nos entendíamos mi padre y yo muy bien. Yo hacía el papel de muy hombre pero aquella risa infantil y aquel grito que me andaban por dentro por poco estropean la impresión que yo quería dar.

Aquella noche casi no dormí y cuando dormí no supe que dormía. Pues el soñar es igual, cuando se sueña de veras, dormido o despierto. Al amanecer yo ya estaba de pie. Tenía que ir a ver al Mago. En cuanto aclaró salí al frío a buscarlo.

El potrero era grande. Tenía un bosque y una cañada. No se veía el Mago en ninguna parte pero yo me sentía seguro. Caminaba despacio, la cabeza toda llena de los acontecimientos de ayer y de los proyectos de mañana. De pronto me di cuenta que había andado mucho. Aprieto el paso. Miro aprensivo a todos lados. Empieza a entrarme el miedo. Sin saber voy corriendo. Cada vez más rápido.

No está. El Mago se ha escapado. Recorro cada rincón donde pudiera haberse agazapado. Sigo la huella. Veo que durante toda la noche el Mago anduvo sin cesar buscando, olfateando, una salida. No la encontró. La inventó.

Seguí la huella que se dirigía directamente a la cerca. Y vi como el rastro no se detenía sino continuaba del otro lado. El alambre era de púa. Y había pelos blancos en el alambre. Había sangre en las púas. Había manchas rojas en la nieve y gotitas rojas en las huellas del otro lado de la cerca.

Allí me detuve. No fui más allá. Sol rayante en la cara. Ojos nublados y llenos de luz. Lágrimas infantiles en mejillas varoniles. Grito hecho nudo en la garganta. Sollozos despacio y silenciosos.

Allí me quedé y me olvidé de mí y del mundo y del tiempo. No sé cómo estuvo, pero mi tristeza era gusto. Lloraba de alegría. Estaba celebrando, por mucho que me dolía, la fuga y la libertad del Mago, la transcendencia de ese espíritu indomable. Ahora seguiría siendo el ideal, la ilusión y la emoción. El Mago era un absoluto. A mí me había enriquecido la vida para siempre.

Allí me halló mi padre. Se acercó sin decir nada y me puso el brazo sobre el hombro. Nos quedamos mirando la zanja blanca con flecos de rojo que se dirigía al sol rayante.

Sp6 - Mi Caballo Mago questions - Calvar

2008-08-27T18:28:00.000-04:00

“Mi Caballo Mago” – Sabine R. Ulibarrí – QUESTIONS from “Abriendo Puertas”

1. Describe en tus propias palabras el proceso de cambio que sufre el joven protagonista desde el comienzo hasta el fin de la historia.

2. El padre del protagonista, al ver que éste ha traído al potrero al caballo Mago, lo ve llegar y lo espera sin hablar. Sólo le dice, “Esos son hombres”. ¿Qué quiere decir con esto?

3. Justifica, dentro del contexto del cuento, la alegría que siente el protagonista al final del cuento, al decir, “mi tristeza era gusto”.

4. Comenta tus impresiones de la técnica narrativa de Ulibarrí, en este cuento. ¿Qué encuentras de notable o de diferente en la forma de Ulibarrí de labrar sus frases? ¿Qué efecto surte esta técnica estilística?

Sp6 - Mi Caballo Mago footnotes - Calvar

2008-08-27T18:27:00.001-04:00

Footnotes from our textbook. (Useful if you're using a printed version of the text and still want to have the information from the book).

“Mi Caballo Mago” – Sabine R. Ulibarrí – footnotes from “Abriendo Puertas”

• resolanas – lugares protegidos del viento, donde se puede tomar el sol
• turbia – revuelta; no transparente
• arcano – remoto; difícil de alcanzar o entender
• regocijo – gran alegría; júbilo
• jáquima – cabezada o correaje de un cabalo, hecha con cordel
• lucirlo – ostentarlo; exhibirlo
• reses (f.) – Ganado; toros y vacas
• majada – cobijo; cobertura nocturna para el ganado
• invicto – triunfante; victorioso; que no ha sido vencido
• yeguas – hembras del caballo
• pasto – hierba; zacate
• manadas – agrupaciones de ganado
• indagaba – investigaba; preguntaba; inquiría; averiguaba
• paradero – sitio donde se encuentra una persona o un animal
• rastro – indicio; señal
• rutilante – brillante; resplandeciente
• desafío – reto; guante arrojado a la cara
• cebado – alimentado
• a sus anchas – a su gusto; sin impedimento
• ceder – darse por vencido; rendirse
• verdugo – el que ejecuta la pena de muerte
• cabestro – cuerda que se ata a la cabeza o al cuello de un caballo para llevarlo
• ijares (m.) – parte del cuerpo situada entre las costillas y la cadera
• forcejar – forcejear; esforzarse por escapar; luchar
• crin (f.) – pelo largo que crece en la parte superior del pescuezo del caballo
• exaltado – muy emocionado
• alteza – orgullo; soberbia; arrogancia
• potrero – lugar de pasto para los caballos
• chispa – partícula encendida que salta de la lumbre
• estropean – dañan
• acontecimientos – sucesos de cierta importancia; cosas importantes que ocurren
• agazapado – escondido; ocultado

Sp6 - El Hijo questions - Calvar

2008-08-27T18:26:00.002-04:00

“El Hijo” – Horacio Quiroga – QUESTIONS from “Abriendo Puertas”

1. El bosque tropical es omnipresente en los cuentos de Horacio Quiroga. Comenta la relación que llevan entre sí la vida de padre e hijo y el medio ambiente que los rodea.

2. El narrador nos informa que el padre sufre desde hace un tiempo de alucinaciones. Las alucinaciones de antes eran pesadillas que tuvieron que ver con los peligros que corre la vida del hijo en este medio ambiente. ¿Cómo se diferencia de éstas la alucinación final del padre, cuando lo vemos sonriendo “de alucinada felicidad”?

3. ¿Qué efecto narrativo crees que surte el hecho de que Quiroga relata esta historia en tiempo presente?

Sp6 - El Hijo footnotes - Calvar

2008-08-27T17:20:00.003-04:00

Footnotes from our textbook. (Useful if you're using a printed version of the text and still want to have the information from the book).

“El Hijo” – Horacio Quiroga – footnotes from “Abriendo Puertas”

• Misiones – provincia argentina, escasamente poblada, en la frontera con Brasil y Paraguay
• deparar – brindar; ofrecer; poner delante de uno
• escopeta – arma de fuego, para cazar aves o animales; (rifle)
• cartuchos – municiones sueltas
• fusil (m.) – arma de fuego de cañón largo
• picada – senda estrecha en el bosque; (pathway)
• abra (f.) – sitio despejado de árboles; claro en el bosque
• cachorro – hijo, metafóricamente; (literally: puppy)
• bañado – terreno bajo e inundable cuando llueve
• casal (m.) – pareja; macho y hembra
• esboza – ensaya, inicia
• cinegética – perteneciente a la caza
• yacútoro – ave grande de color negro
• surucuá (m.) – ave grande, parecida al quetzal
• amengua – disminuye
• concretados – hechos realidad
• se recluyó – se encerró; se aisló
• percutía – golpeaba
• morsa – prensa pequeña para sujetar algo
• bala de parabellum – tipo de munición, calibre de 9 milímetros
• limar – alisar; poner liso
• estampido – detonación; ruido producido cuando se dispara un arma de fuego; (gunshot)
• nimio – insignificante; (insignificant - in regards to amount, generally)
• de sienes plateadas – con canas; con cabello gris o blanco
• meridiana – clara; luminosa; del mediodía
• a compás de – de acuerdo con
• pedregullo – piedras pequeñas
• vera – borde
• ahuyentar – alejar; poner en fuga; hacer huir
• hallan cabida – logran entrar
• alambrado – barrera de alambre
• desgracia – calamidad
• rastro – indicio; señal
• consumada – hecha
• sofoca – reprime
• angustia – sufrimiento emocional
• clama – da voces
• dicha – felicidad
• sombrío – oscuro
• centellos – reflejos brillantes
• pique – picada, senda pequeña
• albeante – blanco
• ceñida – abrazada
• emprenden – empiezan
• piapiá – forma familiar y cariñosa de papá o de papi
• candente(s) – muy caluroso; de gran calor
• a la descubierta – sin sombra; al sol
• empapado – completamente mojado
• quebrantado – afligido; descorazonado

Sp6 - El Hijo text - Calvar

2008-08-27T17:17:00.005-04:00

I found this text on a website... somewhere. Any who, it's our first story. (I noticed some stories were different, and this one seems to be identical to the one in our book, as far as I'm aware).

Horacio Quiroga
(1879-1937)
EL HIJO

ES UN PODEROSO día de verano en Misiones, con todo el sol, el calor y la calma que puede deparar la estación. La naturaleza plenamente abierta, se siente satisfecha de sí.

Como el sol, el calor y la calma ambiente, el padre abre también su corazón a la naturaleza.

—Ten cuidado, chiquito —dice a su hijo; abreviando en esa frase todas las observaciones del caso y que su hijo comprende perfectamente.

—Si, papá —responde la criatura mientras coge la escopeta y carga de cartuchos los bolsillos de su camisa, que cierra con cuidado.

—Vuelve a la hora de almorzar —observa aún el padre.

—Sí, papá —repite el chico.

Equilibra la escopeta en la mano, sonríe a su padre, lo besa en la cabeza y parte.

Su padre lo sigue un rato con los ojos y vuelve a su quehacer de ese día, feliz con la alegría de su pequeño.

Sabe que su hijo es educado desde su más tierna infancia en el hábito y la precaución del peligro, puede manejar un fusil y cazar no importa qué. Aunque es muy alto para su edad, no tiene sino trece años. Y parecía tener menos, a juzgar por la pureza de sus ojos azules, frescos aún de sorpresa infantil.

No necesita el padre levantar los ojos de su quehacer para seguir con la mente la marcha de su hijo.

Ha cruzado la picada roja y se encamina rectamente al monte a través del abra de espartillo.

Para cazar en el monte —caza de pelo— se requiere más paciencia de la que su cachorro puede rendir. Después de atravesar esa isla de monte, su hijo costeará la linde de cactus hasta el bañado, en procura de palomas, tucanes o tal cual casal de garzas, como las que su amigo Juan ha descubierto días anteriores.

Sólo ahora, el padre esboza una sonrisa al recuerdo de la pasión cinegética de las dos criaturas.

Cazan sólo a veces un yacútoro, un surucuá —menos aún— y regresan triunfales, Juan a su rancho con el fusil de nueve milímetros que él le ha regalado, y su hijo a la meseta con la gran escopeta Saint-Étienne, calibre 16, cuádruple cierre y pólvora blanca.

Él fue lo mismo. A los trece años hubiera dado la vida por poseer una escopeta. Su hijo, de aquella edad, la posee ahora y el padre sonríe...

No es fácil, sin embargo, para un padre viudo, sin otra fe ni esperanza que la vida de su hijo, educarlo como lo ha hecho él, libre en su corto radio de acción, seguro de sus pequeños pies y manos desde que tenía cuatro años, consciente de la inmensidad de ciertos peligros y de la escasez de sus propias fuerzas.

Ese padre ha debido luchar fuertemente contra lo que él considera su egoísmo. ¡Tan fácilmente una criatura calcula mal, sienta un pie en el vacío y se pierde un hijo!

El peligro subsiste siempre para el hombre en cualquier edad; pero su amenaza amengua si desde pequeño se acostumbra a no contar sino con sus propias fuerzas.

De este modo ha educado el padre a su hijo. Y para conseguirlo ha debido resistir no sólo a su corazón, sino a sus tormentos morales; porque ese padre, de estómago y vista débiles, sufre desde hace un tiempo de alucinaciones.

Ha visto, concretados en dolorosísima ilusión, recuerdos de una felicidad que no debía surgir más de la nada en que se recluyó. La imagen de su propio hijo no ha escapado a este tormento. Lo ha visto una vez rodar envuelto en sangre cuando el chico percutía en la morsa del taller una bala de parabellum, siendo así que lo que hacía era limar la hebilla de su cinturón de caza.

Horrible caso... Pero hoy, con el ardiente y vital día de verano, cuyo amor a su hijo parece haber heredado, el padre se siente feliz, tranquilo, y seguro del porvenir.

En ese instante, no muy lejos suena un estampido.

—La Saint-Étienne... —piensa el padre al reconocer la detonación. Dos palomas de menos en el monte...

Sin prestar más atención al nimio acontecimiento, el hombre se abstrae de nuevo en su tarea.

El sol, ya muy alto, continúa ascendiendo. Adónde quiera que se mire —piedras, tierra, árboles—, el aire enrarecido como en un horno, vibra con el calor. Un profundo zumbido que llena el ser entero e impregna el ámbito hasta donde la vista alcanza, concentra a esa hora toda la vida tropical.

El padre echa una ojeada a su muñeca: las doce. Y levanta los ojos al monte.

Su hijo debía estar ya de vuelta. En la mutua confianza que depositan el uno en el otro —el padre de sienes plateadas y la criatura de trece años—, no se engañan jamás. Cuando su hijo responde: “Sí, papá”, hará lo que dice. Dijo que volvería antes de las doce, y el padre ha sonreído al verlo partir.

Y no ha vuelto.

El hombre torna a su quehacer, esforzándose en concentrar la atención en su tarea. ¿Es tan fácil, tan fácil perder la noción de la hora dentro del monte, y sentarse un rato en el suelo mientras se descansa inmóvil...?

Bruscamente, la luz meridiana, el zumbido tropical y el corazón del padre se detienen a compass de lo que acaba de pensar: su hijo descansa inmóvil…
El tiempo ha pasado; son las doce y media. El padre sale de su taller, y al apoyar la mano en el banco de mecánica sube del fondo de su memoria el estallido de una bala de parabellum, e instantáneamente, por primera vez en las tres transcurridas, piensa que tras el estampido de la Saint-Étienne no ha oído nada más. No ha oído rodar el pedregullo bajo un paso conocido. Su hijo no ha vuelto y la naturaleza se halla detenida a la vera del bosque, esperándolo.

¡Oh! no son suficientes un carácter templado y una ciega confianza en la educación de un hijo para ahuyentar el espectro de la fatalidad que un padre de vista enferma ve alzarse desde la línea del monte. Distracción, olvido, demora fortuita: ninguno de estos nimios motivos que pueden retardar la llegada de su hijo halla cabida en aquel corazón.

Un tiro, un solo tiro ha sonado, y hace mucho. Tras él, el padre no ha oído un ruido, no ha visto un pájaro, no ha cruzado el abra una sola persona a anunciarle que al cruzar un alambrado, una gran desgracia...

La cabeza al aire y sin machete, el padre va. Corta el abra de espartillo, entra en el monte, costea la línea de cactus sin hallar el menor rastro de su hijo.

Pero la naturaleza prosigue detenida. Y cuando el padre ha recorrido las sendas de caza conocidas y ha explorado el bañado en vano, adquiere la seguridad de que cada paso que da en adelante lo lleva, fatal e inexorablemente, al cadáver de su hijo.

Ni un reproche que hacerse, es lamentable. Sólo la realidad fría terrible y consumada: ha muerto su hijo al cruzar un...

¡Pero dónde, en qué parte! ¡Hay tantos alambrados allí, y es tan, tan sucio el monte! ¡Oh, muy sucio Por poco que no se tenga cuidado al cruzar los hilos con la escopeta en la mano...

El padre sofoca un grito. Ha visto levantarse en el aire... ¡Oh, no es su hijo, no! Y vuelve a otro lado, y a otro y a otro...

Nada se ganaría con ver el color de su tez y la angustia de sus ojos. Ese hombre aún no ha llamado a su hijo. Aunque su corazón clama par él a gritos, su boca continúa muda. Sabe bien que el solo acto de pronunciar su nombre, de llamarlo en voz alta, será la confesión de su muerte.

—¡Chiquito! —se le escapa de pronto. Y si la voz de un hombre de carácter es capaz de llorar, tapémonos de misericordia los oídos ante la angustia que clama en aquella voz.

Nadie ni nada ha respondido. Por las picadas rojas de sol, envejecido en diez años, va el padre buscando a su hijo que acaba de morir.

—¡Hijito mío..! ¡Chiquito mío..! —clama en un diminutivo que se alza del fondo de sus entrañas.

Ya antes, en plena dicha y paz, ese padre ha sufrido la alucinación de su hijo rodando con la frente abierta por una bala al cromo níquel. Ahora, en cada rincón sombrío del bosque ve centellos de alambre; y al pie de un poste, con la escopeta descargada al lado, ve a su...

—¡Chiquito..! ¡Mi hijo!

Las fuerzas que permiten entregar un pobre padre alucinado a la mas atroz pesadilla tienen también un límite. Y el nuestro siente que las suyas se le escapan, cuando ve bruscamente desembocar de un pique lateral a su hijo.

A un chico de trece años bástale ver desde cincuenta metros la expresión de su padre sin machete dentro del monte para apresurar el paso con los ojos húmedos.

—Chiquito... —murmura el hombre. Y, exhausto se deja caer sentado en la arena albeante, rodeando con los brazos las piernas de su hijo.

La criatura, así ceñida, queda de pie; y como comprende el dolor de su padre, le acaricia despacio la cabeza:

—Pobre papá...

En fin, el tiempo ha pasado. Ya van a ser las tres...

Juntos ahora, padre e hijo emprenden el regreso a la casa.

—¿Cómo no te fijaste en el sol para saber la hora..? —murmura aún el primero.

—Me fijé, papá... Pero cuando iba a volver vi las garzas de Juan y las seguí...

—¡Lo que me has hecho pasar, chiquito!

—Piapiá... —murmura también el chico.

Después de un largo silencio:

—Y las garzas, ¿las mataste? —pregunta el padre.

—No.

Nimio detalle, después de todo. Bajo el cielo y el aire candentes, a la descubierta por el abra de espartillo, el hombre devuelve a casa con su hijo, sobre cuyos hombros, casi del alto de los suyos, lleva pasado su feliz brazo de padre. Regresa empapado de sudor, y aunque quebrantado de cuerpo y alma, sonríe de felicidad.

***

Sonríe de alucinada felicidad... Pues ese padre va solo.

A nadie ha encontrado, y su brazo se apoya en el vacío. Porque tras él, al pie de un poste y con las piernas en alto, enredadas en el alambre de púa, su hijo bienamado yace al sol, muerto desde las diez de la mañana.

USH - Brigham Young - Church

2008-03-29T19:51:00.002-04:00

Brigham Young was born in Whitingham, Vermont on June 1, 1801, and died in Salt Lake City (in the Utah Territory) on August 29, 1877 at the age of 76. (An interesting personal note was that he was perhaps the most famous polygamist of the early church – he officially married over 50 women). He was a leader in the Latter Day Saint movement, and was the president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints from 1847 until his death. Young was nicknamed by some the “American Moses” because he, like the Biblical character, led his followers (the Mormon pioneers) in an exodus through a desert, to the “promised land.” His legacy, however, is controversial. Although he did help to organize a large religion, and he did play a role in the United States’ acquisition of the Utah Territory, concerns remain over his role in the Utah War against the United States government and his attitudes toward racial minorities.

Although Young had been converted to Methodist faith in 1823 (age 22), he was drawn to Mormonism after reading the Book of Mormon soon after its publication in 1830. He officially joined the church in 1832 (age 31) and traveled to Canada as a missionary. Following the death of Joseph Smith, he was later chosen to lead the church. Following repeated conflicts, Young decided to relocate his group of Latter-day Saints to a territory in what is now Utah (then part of Mexico). They arrived in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, a date now recognized as “Pioneer Day” in Utah.

Although he had many achievements in his life, he considered these “means,” not “ends.” Examples of these achievements include instituting patterns of Church government still present today, issuing detailed instructions on how to get to the Salt Lake Valley (instructions that would be followed by hundreds of companies), directing the organization of several hundred Latter-day Saint settlements, setting up several hundred business enterprises, and initiating the construction of meetinghouses, tabernacles, and temples. “His overriding concern was to build on the foundation begun by Joseph Smith to establish a commonwealth in the desert where his people could live the gospel of Jesus Christ in peace, thereby improving their prospects in this life and in the next.”

USH - Utopian Communities - Church

2008-03-29T19:51:00.001-04:00

Utopian Communities (also known as “intentional communities”) are “planned residential communities designed to promote a much higher degree of social interaction than other communities.” These utopian communities were attempting to create an ideal society.

Although utopian communities date to the earliest days of American history, they had become institutionalized in American thought by the 1840s. Many groups challenged the traditional standards and social conventions of the time, their desire for a perfect world often in sharp contradiction to the actual world they lived in, one in which such concepts as capitalism, the Industrial Revolution, immigration, and tension between the individual and the community, ideals that contradicted older forms of living.

The first of the American Utopias was evident in Robert Owen’s creation of the New Harmony Community in western Indiana in 1825. There, the residents established a socialist community in which everyone shared equally in labor and profit. The peace and contentment, however, would not last. Just months after the creation of a constitution in January 1826, the residents (numbered just over a thousand) divided into sub-communities. This division then disintegrated into chaos.

Another community started at this time was a community started by Francis Wright at Nashoba in Tennessee. Wright hoped to show that free labor was more economical than slavery, but the community did not attract settlers and it closed down within a year.

Transcendentalists [see Ralph Waldo Emerson, page 6] believed that an understanding of truth and eternity could only result when humankind abandoned the concrete world of the senses in favor of a more spiritual characterization of nature. They thus, in order to escape the modern world, created many utopian communities in the 1840s. The most important of these was Brook Farm, established in West Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1841. Residents hoped to free themselves from the competition of the capitalist world so as to work as little as possible, all the while enjoying the fruits of high culture.

Although none of these communities would remain a long-lasting settlement, they reflected the personal, social, and religious views of some of the American people at the time, a desire for an equal world free from competition and injustice rampant in the modern world.

USH - Mark Twain - Church

2008-03-29T19:50:00.004-04:00

Mark Twain (his pen name) was born in Florida, Missouri on November 30, 1835 with the birth name Samuel Clemens. He died on April 21, 1910. He worked as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River from when he was licensed in 1859 (after two years of studying the river) until traffic along the Mississippi was reduced in 1861 when the American Civil War broke out.

Well known for his quotations as well, Mark Twain was an American humanist, humorist, satirist, lecturer, and writer. He enjoyed immense public popularity, and “his keen wit and incisive satire earned him praise from both critics and peers.” American author William Faulkner even referred to Twain as “the father of American literature.” Twain is most noted for his novels The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (has been since called the “first Great American Novel”). Adventures of Huckleberry Finn “solidified him as a noteworthy American writer.” This book was an offshoot of Tom Sawyer that had a more serious tone. The main idea of the book is “the young boy’s belief in the right thing to do even though the majority of society believes that it was wrong.” Another of his books, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, was his first big pronouncement of disappointment with politics. “The tone becomes cynical to the point of almost being a rant against the established political system of the day (which would have been in King Arthur’s time), and eventually devolved into madness for the main character.”

He began his writing career with light, humorous verse, but his writing eventually “evolved into a grim, almost profane chronicle of the vanities, hypocrisies and murderous acts of mankind.” Twain was a master at providing colloquial speech in his works, and thus helped to create and popularize a distinctive style of American literature built on American themes and language.

His reputation as a popular author still overshadows his contributions as a social critic, his radicalism neutralized by history. Although he remained neutral during the Civil War, he acknowledged that his view became more radical as he got older. Twain was, among other things, an adamant supporter of abolition and emancipation, in favor of labor unions, and critical of organized religion and certain elements of Christianity.

USH - Harriet Tubman - Church

2008-03-29T19:50:00.003-04:00

Harriet Tubman (birth name: Araminta Ross) was born around 1820 (exact date unknown) to slave parents in Dorchester County, Maryland. As a child, Tubman took care of a younger brother and a baby, as her mother was usually busy with her work at “the big house.”

On September 17, 1849, Tubman escaped slavery with her brothers, Ben and Henry. Once they had left, however, her brothers began experiencing second thoughts, and, fearful of the dangers ahead, went back, forcing Tubman to return with them. Soon afterwards, however, she escaped again, this time without her brothers. While no one knows exactly what route Tubman took to go north, it is known that she made use of the extensive network known as the Underground Railroad, an “informal but well-organized system was composed of free blacks, white abolitionists, and Christian activists.”

Although she was an illiterate child, her mother had told her Bible stories, helping her to become deeply religious. The particular variety of her faith is unclear, but it is definite that she “acquired a passionate faith in God.” This religious faith was an important resource to her as she ventured again and again into Maryland. Not only did it give her strength for the journeys she was on, but Tubman also used spirituals as coded messages, warning fellow travelers that there was danger or signaling that the path was clear for travel.

For eleven years, Tubman repeatedly returned to this area of slavery, eventually rescuing about 70 slaves in thirteen different expeditions. She also gave specific instructions on how to escape to about 50 or 60 other fugitives. (Some historians say that she rescued over three hundred slaves both on her journeys and from her support of the Underground Railroad). Her trips back into the land of slavery put her at significant risk. Not only had she illegally escaped from slavery, but she was helping other slaves to do the same. She thus made us of various disguises and ploys to avoid detection.

She also later helped John Brown to recruit men for his (unfortunately unsuccessful) raid on Harpers Ferry, and she struggled in the post-war era for women’s suffrage.

USH - Sojourner Truth - Church

2008-03-29T19:50:00.001-04:00

Sojourner Truth was born into slavery in Swartekill, New York around 1797 (exact date unknown) as Isabella Baumfree. (She gave herself the name “Sojourner Truth” in 1843). She died on November 26, 1883 in Battle Creek, Michigan. Although the state of New York began to legislate the abolition of slavery in 1799, but the process wasn’t complete until July 4, 1827. She escaped her master late in 1826 with her infant daughter, Sophia, but she was forced to leave her other four children behind because they were not legally freed in the emancipation order until they had served as bound servants into their twenties.

On June 1, 1843 she changed her name to Sojourner Truth and then left to make her way traveling and preaching about abolition. In 1844, she joined the Northampton Association of education and Industry in Massachusetts, an organization that “supported women’s rights and religious tolerance as well as pacifism.”

In May of 1851, “she attended the Ohio Women’s Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio where she delivered her famous speech Ain’t I a Woman, a slogan she adopted from one of the most famous abolitionist images, that of a kneeling female slave with the caption ‘Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?’” By frequently asking the question “Ain’t I a Woman?”, she placed brought attention that there were U.S. citizens who suffered dual persecutions, both for being black and for being a woman. This speech was also a landmark achievement for a woman who could not read or write. (She had previously secured help from Olive Gilbert to help her write her own autobiography).

Over the next decade, she spoke before dozens, perhaps hundreds, of audiences. She spoke about abolition, women’s rights, prison reform, and preached against capital punishment. “During the Civil war, she spoke on the Union’s behalf, as well as for enlisting black troops for the cause and freeing slaves.” She used humor, biblical references, and controversy to reach the audience and really emphasize her points.

USH - Henry David Thoreau - Church

2008-03-29T19:49:00.000-04:00

Henry David Thoreau (birth name: David Henry Thoreau) was born on July 12, 1817 in Concord, Massachusetts. He died on May 6, 1862. Thoreau studied at Harvard University, but he never technically graduated, allegedly having refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. During a leave of absence from Harvard in 1835, Thoreau taught school in Canton, Massachusetts, joining the faculty of Concord Academy following his graduation in 1837. He was soon dismissed, however, for refusing to administer corporal punishment.

He then opened a grammar school with his brother John in Concord in 1838 (age 21). They introduced several progressive concepts, such as nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school ended, however, when John became fatally ill from tetanus in 1842.

Thoreau was “a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition.” In his early years, he followed transcendentalism [see Ralph Waldo Emerson, page 6]. Only July 4, 1845 (age 28), he set out on a two-year experiment in simple living. He moved to a small self-built house on land owned by Emerson (Walden Pond). In 1854, he published Walden (also called Life in the Woods), which was the story of the two years, two months, and two days he spend there. Although it was not popular at the time, it is now regarded as “a classic American book that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions.”
Thoreau also played a large part in persuading the abolitionist movement to accept John Brown as a martyr after his raid at Harpers Ferry. Many prominent voices had distanced themselves from Brown (or even damned him). This disgusted Thoreau, and he thus composed a speech (A Plea for Captain John Brown), “uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions.”

An early advocate of recreational hiking and canoeing, of conserving natural resources, and of preserving wilderness, Thoreau was also one of the first American supporters of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. However, he neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness, instead seeking a middle ground between the two.

USH - Harriet Beecher Stowe - Church

2008-03-29T19:48:00.001-04:00

Harriet Beecher Stowe was born on June 14, 1811 in Litchfield, Connecticut, the seventh child of a Protestant preacher. She died on July 1, 1896 in Johnstown, Ohio at the age of 85. She worked as a teacher with her older sister, Catharine, for a time. She helped to support her family financially by writing for local and religious periodicals. During her life, she wrote many poems, travel books, biographical sketches, and children’s books, as well as adult novels. She also “met and corresponded with people as varied as Lady Byron and George Eliot”.

Although she wrote at least ten adult novels, she is predominantly known for her first, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, published in 1852. It began as a serial for the Washington anti-slavery Weekly (the National Era), and it focused public interest on the issue of slavery, while being deeply controversial. Attacking the cruelty of slavery, it reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential, even overseas in Britain. The book had an amazing effect in the North, attracting thousands of people to the abolitionist movement. The south, however, found that the book was a false account of southern life, “a slanderous accusation.” Banned in many southern states, anyone found possessing the book could be arrested. It made the political issue of slavery concrete to millions of people, and animated anti-slavery forces in the North. In fact, when Abraham Lincoln met Stowe, it’s claimed that he said, “So you’re the little woman that started this great war!” After this book was published, she became a kind of celebrity, speaking against slavery not only in America, but in Europe as well.

However, “the historical significance of Stowe’s antislavery writing has tended to draw attention away from her other work, and from her work’s literary significance.” Admittedly, her work is irregular, sometimes indulging in a “romanticized Christian sensibility” that was popular at the time, but seems to lack credibility with modern readers. At times, though, she was an “early and effective realist,” describing the setting of her works accurately and with great detail. She shows an understanding of the complex social culture of her time through her portraits of local social life, and she had a great ability to portray that culture to others.

USH - Joseph Smith - Church

2008-03-29T19:47:00.004-04:00

Joseph Smith (true name: Joseph Smith, Jr.) was born in Sharon, Vermont on December 23, 1805, and died in Carthage, Illinois on June 27, 1844, at the age of 39. He was the American religious figure who founded the Latter Day Saint movement (also known as Mormonism). His followers declared him to be the first latter-day prophet, whose mission was supposedly to restore the original Christian church that was “said to have been lost soon after the death of Apostles because of an apostasy [“total desertion of or departure from one's religion, principles, party, cause, etc.”].”

His family was a farming family that lived in western New York for much of Smith’s young life. This region was an area of intense revivalism and religious diversity during the Second Great Awakening. Smith, during is youth, had little interaction with organized religion, but he still studied the Bible, had religious opinions, and was influenced by the common folk religion of the area. He reported that in 1820 (aged 14) he experienced a theopany [“an appearance of God to man, or a divine disclosure”], commonly referred to as the First Vision (several accounts of this would be recorded later in his life).

He was said to have been concerned as to which church was “correct” for him to join. Supposedly, God and Jesus came to him as “two separate, glorious, resurrected beings” to tell him that “none of the churches established at the time were correct, and so he should join none of them.” Smith purportedly had several additional revelations while the Book of Mormon (translation of ancient Egyptian plates) was published, and he had supposedly begun the work of organizing a new Christian church.

Once established with a congregation of followers, the church was moved to Ohio to avoid the conflict encountered in New York and Pennsylvania. He was eventually killed (over thirteen years later) when a mob broke into the jail where he was being held (under promise of “protection and a fair trial” following an accusation of him violating the freedom of the press) and was killed. (Mormons view his death as martyrdom).

Currently there are between thirteen and fourteen million people that are part of a denomination originating from his teachings. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the largest, with approximately 13 million members. The second largest is the Community of Christ, with about 250,000 members.

USH - Seneca Falls Convention - Church

2008-03-29T19:47:00.003-04:00

The Seneca Falls Convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York on July 19 and 20, 1848. The first women’s rights convention held in the United States, it is often labeled the birthplace of feminism. A group of American women and men met here to discuss the legal limitations imposed on women during this period. These discussions were influenced by the contributors’ participation in the abolitionist movement, and they eventually used (as many different groups throughout history have) language and structure from the United States Declaration of Independence to formally state their belief that women should be entitled to the rights granted to American citizens in a document known as the Declaration of Sentiments.

At this time in American history, the country was in the middle of cultural and economic change. Since the American Revolution and the Constitutional Convention, the geographical boundaries and the population had both more than doubled, the population had begun to shift westward, and the economy was moving from a system of independent farmers to a world built around distant, unknown markets (known as the Market Revolution).

Prior to this convention, there had been no public meeting of such a large scale to discuss this topic, despite the questions raised by such women of the Revolutionary era as Abigail Adams. However, when the men were preoccupied with the war effort, women had to take over many of their responsibilities, thus leading the creation of many new social roles following the end of the war, and women were able to establish a place for themselves in society. Many women began organizing in reform organizations aiming to improve the lives of others and fight for the rights of those who could not speak out for themselves (ex.: schoolchildren, the mentally ill).

As part of their declaration, they listed the grievances that reflected the severe limitation on women’s legal rights (they could not vote, couldn’t participate in the creation of laws they were expected to follow, their property was taxed, rarely got custody of children in a divorce, often couldn’t get higher education, etc.). They proclaimed that “all men and women were created equal.” This helped to open the public’s eyes to ideas like women’s rights and they were, for the first time, willing to question convention.

USH - Edgar Allan Poe - Church

2008-03-29T19:47:00.001-04:00

Edgar Allan Poe was born on January 19, 1809 and died on October 7, 1849, 40 years old. A poet, short-story writer, editor, and literary critic, Poe was the first well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing along, something that resulted in a financially difficult life and career. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts under the name “Edgar Poe.” His parents died when he was young, and he was taken in (but never formally adopted) by John and Frances Allan (hence the name). After Poe spent a short period at the University of Virginia and briefly attempted a military career, he parted ways with the Allans.

His publishing career began modestly, his first published work being an anonymous collection of poems. Poe then switched his focus to prose and spent the next several years working for various literary journals and periodicals, becoming known for his distinctive style of literary criticism. His work wasn’t steady, though, and he was forced to move between several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York City. In Baltimore in 1835 (aged 26), he married Virginia Clemm (his 13-year-old cousin), but she died of tuberculosis ten years later.

Poe’s best known fiction works deal with questions of death (including its physical signs, the effects of decomposition, concerns of premature burial, the reanimation of the dead, and mourning) and many are generally considered to be part of the dark romanticism genre. Although he is best known for his work in the horror genre, he also wrote satires, humor tales, and hoaxes, using irony and ludicrous extravagance for comic effect. Much of his work was written using themes specifically catered for mass market tastes.

One of his more well-known works, the poem “The Raven” was published in January 1845 (when he was 36 years old), to instant success. Other famous works include “The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” “Annabel Lee,” “Lenore,” and “The Tell-Tale Heart.”
His works influenced literature in the United States and around the world. His work appears throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, and television. A number of his previous homes are dedicated museums today.

USH - Horace Mann - Church

2008-03-29T19:46:00.004-04:00

Horace Mann was born in Franklin, Massachusetts on May 4, 1796 and died on August 2, 1859 at the age of 63. He was an American education reformer and abolitionist (he was also a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives). His childhood and youth were spent in poverty, and he was never fully healthy, the early hard, manual labor taking a toll on his small body. The only way he was able to read as he so avidly loved to do, was to borrow books from the small library in his town that consisted primarily of histories and essays on theology. He did attend Brown University at the age of 20, graduating as the valedictorian of his class after only three years. Following this, he spent time as a tutor (Latin and Greek), a librarian, and a law student.

When he was appointed the head of the newly created board of education of Massachusetts in 1837 (age 41), he then began the work that would soon “place him in the foremost rank of American educationists.” He held teachers’ conventions, delivered lectures and addresses, carried on widespread communication, and introduced numerous reforms. Mann was basically responsible for the normal school system in Massachusetts (created to train high school graduates to be teachers; most now called teachers colleges).

Mann’s reforms included establishing a single school system throughout the state, rather than many separate local school districts. He encouraged the idea of having separate classrooms depending on education level, and discouraged the use of simple memorization (rather than true learning) as a form of learning. More importantly, he “worked effectively for more and better equipped school houses, longer school years (until 16 years old), higher pay for teachers, and a wider curriculum.”

The practical result of his work was a revolution in the approach used in the public school system of Massachusetts. This change then influenced the school system of other states. Although he was met with bitter opposition by those who disagreed with his theories on learning or those who “contended against the exclusion of all sectarian instruction from the schools,” he is often considered “the father of American public education.”

USH - Hudson River School - Church

2008-03-29T19:46:00.003-04:00

The Hudson River School was a group of American landscape painters in the mid-nineteenth century. (In this sense, “school” refers to “a group of people whose outlook, inspiration, output, or style demonstrates a common thread, rather than a learning institution.”) These painters took a Romantic approach (emphasizing emotions painted in a bold, dramatic manner; more emotional, usually melancholic, even melodramatically tragic, than classic painters) to illustrate the nature of the Hudson River Valley, the Catskill Mountains, the Berkshire Mountains, the White Mountains, and lands further west. As the American frontier expanded westward, their views (often brashly theatrical, embracing moral or literary associations) of the expanding territory found a passionate audience.

Although it is not entirely sure where the term Hudson River School came from, nor when it’s use was first published, a man named Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School. This artist had taken a steamship up the Hudson River in the autumn of 1825, stopping at places along the way to observe the environment of the area. Cole found the brilliant autumn hues of the area unusual (used to monochromatic green landscapes), and thus had inspiration for his paintings.

These paintings reflected the three major themes of America during the 19th century: discovery, exploration, and settlement. This time period was when America’s border greatly expanded and the nation increased in size. The paintings also tended to illustrate the American scenery as a pastoral setting, where humans and nature coexist peacefully. These landscapes are also characterized by their realistic and detailed (sometimes even idealized) portrayal of nature juxtaposed with colonialism and wilderness. In general, these painters believed that the landscape of the country was an indescribable expression of God, though not all artists had the same level of religious conviction.

Although the elements of the paintings themselves are shown very realistically, many of the actual scenes of the paintings are mixtures of various different outlooks and natural images observed by the artists. They would travel to many places in the process of gathering visual information and ideas for their paintings, going to rather unusual and severe places, many of which were too hostile to allow for the painter to stay there in the nature while completing his painting. Instead, the painters would sketch ideas and rely on memory in order to record ideas for the paintings which would then be created after the artists safely returned home.

USH - The Grimké Sisters - Church

2008-03-29T19:46:00.001-04:00

The Grimké sisters were 19th-century American Quakers, educators, and writers. They were early advocates of abolitionism and women’s writers. Sarah Grimké was born in South Carolina on November 26, 1792 and died on December 23, 1873 at the age of 81. Her sister, Angelina Grimké was born in 1805 (also in South Carolina) and died in 1879 at the age of 74. Throughout their lives, the two sisters traveled throughout the North, sharing their stories from the first-hand experiences they had with slavery from their family’s plantation. They were among the first women to actually publicly act in social reform movements, and subsequently received abuse and ridicule for their abolitionist activity. They thus realized that women would need to create a safe place for themselves in the public arena in order to be effective reformers that were actually respected for what they believed. They thus became early activists in the women’s rights movement.

These beliefs went directly against what they had been raised to believe. Their father was a strong advocate of slavery and also strongly believed in the subordination of women. He was a wealthy planter who had hundreds of slaves and fathered at least 14 children. During his life, he also served as the chief judge of the Supreme Court of South Carolina. Sarah, being 13 years older than her sister, was the 6th child, while Angelina was her youngest sibling. Sarah was always against slavery, having even tried to board a steam boat at the age of five in order to go to a place without slavery after she had seen a slave being whipped. Later, she even taught her personal slave how to read. Sarah wanted to become an attorney, following in her father’s footsteps. She studied constantly, but her parents forbade her to study her brother’s books or any language. After her studies ended, she became part mother and part sister to Angelina.

After her father’s death, Sarah became involved in the Quaker movement, and did convert Angelina as well. Later in their lives, after they had become more involved in the abolitionist movement, a letter from Angelina was posted in The Liberator, something that angered the Quaker community. Given the option of either recanting the statement and thus gaining standing with the Quakers or more actively opposing slavery, they chose the second option. Neither of the sisters initially sought to become feminists, but they felt role was more forced upon them. Devoutly religious, their works are predominately religious in nature with strong biblical arguments. Both were powerful writers who neatly summarized the abolitionist arguments which would eventually lead to the Civil War. Indeed, Sarah’s work was much ahead of it’s time, but it addressed many issues familiar to the modern feminist movement. (Sarah emphasized feminism over abolitionism, where Angelina remained primarily interested in the abolitionist movement).

USH - William Lloyd Garrison - Church

2008-03-29T19:45:00.001-04:00

William Lloyd Garrison was born on December 12, 1805 in Newburyport, Massachusetts, and died on May 24, 1879 at the age of 74. He was a prominent American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer. His father, being a merchant sailing master, was greatly affected by the Embargo Act passed in 1807, banning the United States from trading with any other foreign country. The family thus fell on hard times, the situation worsening when Garrison’s father abandoned the family in 1808. This forced them to beg for food, and also caused young William to have to work – although he was only three years old – by selling homemade molasses candy and delivering wood.

In 1818 (aged 13), he had already endured several difficult apprenticeships. He then began to work for the Newburyport Herald as a writer and an editor. This job, and subsequent jobs in the newspaper industry, gave him the talents that he would so skillfully employ when he later published his own paper.

At the age of 25, he officially joined the Abolition movement by joining the American Colonization Society, an organization that allegedly believed that free blacks should emigrate to a territory on the west coast of Africa, ostensibly to promote their freedom and happiness. However, the fact later emerged that few members supported this idea. Most people in the society merely wished to reduce the number of free blacks in the country in order to help preserve the institution of slavery.

Disgusted by this, Garrison rejected their programs and, on January 1, 1831, he published the first issue of his own anti-slavery newspaper, the Liberator. Through his work in this newspaper, and in other publications, he advocated the immediate emancipation of all slaves. At this time in the 1830s, this view was extremely unpopular. Even northerners who were against slavery found this a preposterous idea. What would they do with all the newly freed slaves? It wasn’t believed that they could actually peacefully and quietly enter American society. However, Garrison believed that they could assimilate. He believed that, in time, all blacks would be equal in every way to the country’s white citizens. After all, he believed, they, too, were Americans and entitled to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”

Although the Liberator had a very small circulation his approach to emancipation stressed nonviolence and passive resistance, something that did attract him a following. Known as a radical abolitionist, Garrison nonetheless is known as one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society, one of the first organizations dedicated to promoting immediate emancipation.

USH - Charles Finney - Church

2008-03-29T19:42:00.002-04:00

Charles Finney was born in Litchfield County, Connecticut on August 27, 1792 and died on August 16, 1875 at the age of 42. The youngest of seven children, his parents were farmers. Although Finney himself never attended college, his stature (he was 6’3” tall), leadership abilities, and his piercing eyes helped him to gain a status in his community. He studied law from 1818 to 1821, until he had a “sudden conversion experience” in Adams, New York at the age of 29.

After this experience, he began to preach, becoming a licensed minister in the Presbyterian Church. His logical and clear presentation of the Gospel message reached thousands of people, promising renewing power and the love of Jesus. Although historians are not sure, some estimate that his preaching may have supposedly led to the conversion of over 500,000 people.

Finney was both renowned and criticized for his unique techniques and innovations in preaching and conducting religious meetings. For example, he allowed women to pray in public, something that was almost unheard of at that time. He also was known for the development of the “anxious bench,” a place for people who were not Christians, but were considering converting to Christianity, could come to receive prayer. His preaching was intended to evoke a highly emotional response in those to whom he was preaching.

Not only was Finney a highly successful Christian evangelist, he was also involved with abolitionist movement, frequently denouncing slavery from his pulpit. In fact, beginning in the 1830s, he would deny communion in his churches to any slaveholders, clearly demonstrating his loathing of the practice of slavery.

During this time, the United States was undergoing massive social change, being a new nation still attempting to discover it’s identity. Finney managed to be the “most successful religious revivalist during this period, and in this particular area.” Although other Christian revival groups were successful at this time (for example, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Mormons, and Seventh-day Adventists), they became closed and exclusivist, while Finney was “widely admired and influential amongst more mainstream Christians.”

He was thus a major leader of the Second Great Awakening in the United States, a great religious revival consisting of renewed personal salvation experienced in revival meetings.

USH - Frederick Douglass - Church

2008-03-29T19:42:00.001-04:00

Frederick Douglass was born in February of 1818 (the exact day is unknown), near Easton, Maryland. His mother was a slave and a man named Aaron Anthony claimed ownership of the young boy. He spent his early childhood living with his grandmother in a cabin, as his mother was hired out and he only saw her on rare visits. He was separated from his grandmother at the age of 6 to live on a large plantation where Captain Anthony worked, before being sent to live with in-laws of the captain’s daughter two years later.

While there (Baltimore) from the ages of 8 to 15, he had his first job, looking after the Aulds’ son, Tommy. Also there, he learned to read and write until Sophia Auld’s husband forbade her to teach him. After that, Douglass taught himself in secret. (He also taught himself the art of public speaking). Once he knew how to read, Douglass would read newspapers and thus learned about the debate over slavery.
In 1833 (age 15), Douglass was brought to St. Michael’s, Maryland by this master. While there, he organized secret schools for slaves and refused to submit to whipping. Although one of these schools was broken up by a mob and he was hired out to “slave breakers” (farmers who sought to control the rebellious activities of slaves), he continued to defy his master and his slave status. Three years later, he planned to escape, but was caught, imprisoned, and sent back to Thomas Auld (his master).

He finally successfully escaped from slavery in September 1838, when he was 20 years old. He settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts, where he attended anti-slavery meetings held in African-American churches. He sometimes even told these groups of his experiences.

Throughout his life, Frederick Douglass was “first and foremost an abolitionist and civil rights activist.” By the time of the Civil War, “he was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his orations on the condition of the black race, and other issues such as women’s rights.” During the Civil War, he and other abolitionists argued that the war was aimed to end slavery, so African-Americans should thus be allowed to fight in the war, be allowed to fight for their own freedom. After the war was over, and after Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation that freed the slaves of the Confederacy, he began to fight for equality of his people. He was a firm believer in the equality of all people, having been quoted as saying “I would unite with anybody to do right and with nobody to do wrong.”

USH - Dorothea Dix - Church

2008-03-29T19:41:00.000-04:00

Dorothea Dix was born in Hampden, Maine, on April 4, 1802. Her family life was nonexistent at best, even abusive, as her mother had poor mental health and her father was an abusive alcoholic. Almost as soon as her two younger brothers (Joseph and Charles) were born, she cared for them, taking over the role of raising them. When the fighting at home got to be too much for her, she would often find refuge at her paternal grandmother’s house in Boston.

Even though her family situation left much to be desired, her father did teach Dix many things that would eventually influence her choices in life. For one, he taught her to read and write at a young age, giving her an advantage over the other students when she entered school. This knowledge led to a passion for teaching and reading, evident in the fact that she also taught her brothers to read when they were young. Her parents were later declared incapable of caring for their children, and the Dorothea and her brothers moved into her grandmother’s house, the Dix Mansion in Boston. Her grandmother was very wealthy and thus demanded that Dorothea act as a young wealthy girl should, with proper manners and such.

Dorothea, with help from her second cousin, Edward Bangs (to whom she was engaged for a time), opened a little school to teach young girls. Although she closed it after about three years, she did go on to open a school at Dix Mansion with two different classes: one as a charity for poor girls and one catering to wealthy girls. However, her health took a turn for the worse and she had to give up her career as a teacher.

After a vacation to England to recuperate, she returned to Boston and began her second career, and advocate for the reform of treatment for the mentally ill. Her achievements would spark immediate response, and her changes and beliefs are still felt today in how mental patients are treated. Upon her return to Boston, she discovered that the mentally ill were housed in an “unheated, unfurnished, and foul-smelling” jail, along with prostitutes, drunks, and criminals.

She immediately went to court upon discovering this, and eventually won, beginning to investigate treatment of mentally ill patients. Her work helped to pass legislation in Massachusetts (and later in the United States as a whole) funding hospitals and mandating better treatment of the mentally ill, something that was seen as radical at the time. (The popular belief was that “the insane would never be cured and that living within their dreadful conditions was enough for them.”) Showing that through kind care and treatment, these mentally ill patients could actually recover, she was perhaps the “most effective advocate of humanitarian reform in American mental institutions during the nineteenth century.”

USH - Ralph Waldo Emerson - Church

2008-03-29T19:39:00.000-04:00

Ralph Waldo Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts on May 25, 1803, and died in Concord, Massachusetts on April 27, 1882, at the age of 78. Through his essays, poems, and lectures, he was a leading spokesman of transcendentalism (movement which held that “every individual can reach ultimate truths through spiritual intuition, which transcends reason and sensory experience”) and also a major influence on American literature.

Emerson’s father was a minister of the First Unitarian Church in Boston and thus his early years were “filled with books and a daily routine of studious and frugal home life”. When his father died (Emerson was 8 years old), he lived with his aunt, an eccentric but brilliant woman who stimulated his independent thinking.

He did attend Harvard for four years, where he began to record his thoughts in the famous Journal. Although he did begin to study at the Harvard divinity school, he had to leave his studies and move south due to his poor health and developing tuberculosis. He became a pastor of the Old North Church in Boston, where he preached for three years before retiring due to differences in religious opinion with his congregation.

After leaving his pastorate, he took a trip to Europe where he met several notable English writers (including Coleridge and Wordsworth). Through them, his interest in transcendental thought began to grow. The three basic tenets of transcendentalism were “a belief that God is present in every aspect of nature, including every human being,” “the conviction that everyone is capable of apprehending God through the use of intuition,” and “the belief that all of nature is symbolic of the spirit.”

It has been said that “probably no writer has so profoundly influenced American thought as Emerson.” During the early 1830s (his early 30s), he began his active career as a writer and a lecturer. He was noted as being “a very abstract and difficult writer who nevertheless drew large crowds for his speeches.” He was a great orator, a man who could captivate crowds with his “deep voice, his enthusiasm, and his egalitarian [democratic] respect for his audience.” Later in his life, he was very outspoken in his support for abolitionism, despite the protest and jeers that this produced from the crowds to which he spoke. His work expressing transcendentalism did lead to a speech entitled The American Scholar, considered to be America’s “Intellectual Declaration of Independence.” He once said that his central doctrine was “the infinitude of the private man.”

USH - Emily Dickinson - Church

2008-03-29T19:37:00.000-04:00

Emily Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830 and died on May 15, 1886 at the age of 56. She was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, the second of three children. She was very close to her brother, Austin, and her sister, Lavinia. Neither Emily nor Lavinia ever married, both living at home their entire lives, and, while Austin did get married, he and his wife chose to live in a house that was next door to his childhood home. Her family was in moderate privilege with strong local and religious attachments, with loving but strict parents. As a child, she was thought of as frail (both by her parents and others), and was thus often kept home from school. She did, despite this, excel at school. Ms. Dickinson did very well in many subjects, including Latin and science, as well as composition (She was recognized for her “prodigious abilities in composition.”). Although she did attend a college (Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, now Mount Holyoke College), she found it too strict and religious-based, remaining there for only one year.

Nearly 1,800 of Dickinson’s poems have been published, but only 10 were known to have been published during her lifetime. These poems were often altered significantly by publishers, as was common in that time, in order to ensure that they fit the conventional poetic rules of that time (such rules include short lines, no titles, or unconventional punctuation and capitalization). The rest of her poems were discovered by Lavinia following Emily’s death, finally showing the extent of the poet’s work. Although much of her work was reviewed unfavorably at the time, she is now considered to be “major American poet.”

It is easy to see that Emily Dickinson has had a considerable impact on American literature. Her poetry is taught in literature and poetry classes from middle school through college. Her work is frequently anthologized and has been used as inspiration for many songs. Her poetry tackles the standard themes of love, death, and nature. Critics have said that the strength of her poetry is in the fact that she has such personal honesty in her work and such a strong control on powerful emotion. As Michael Myers once said, “Dickinson’s poetry is challenging because it is radical and original in it’s rejection of most traditional nineteenth-century themes and techniques. Her poems require active engagement from the reader, because she seems to leave out so much with her elliptical style and remarkable contracting metaphors.”

USH - The Road to Texas Annexation - Church

2008-03-29T19:34:00.004-04:00

• annex – to bring in (i.e.: territory)

• we (U.S.) were annexing land from the West to increase the size of our country

• Mexican Independence
o they gained it from Spain
o 1821

• modern-day Texas belonged to Mexico at that time

• Mexico offers land grants to Americans in the early 1820s

• Stephen Austin
o 1823
o takes about 300 American families to Texas
o Mexican government says… to live on their land grants, you must:
-- practice Catholicism
-- eventually become a Mexican citizen
-- not own slaves
o by 1830… about 20,000 people
-- they now had slave labor (land very good for growing cotton)

• friction begins to mount between Santa Anna (Mexican president) and the Texans

• the Texans declare their independence from Mexico
o 1836
o want to be known as the “Lone Star Republic”
o Jackson was still the U.S. president (about to give power to Martin van Buren)

• Texas wants to be part of the U.S.
o they petition Congress for statehood
o Congress doesn’t grant them statehood…
 if they became a state, it could cause a war with Mexico
 they would want to be a slave state (it would throw off the balance in Congress)

• Texas War for Independence
o Santa Anna and his forces wage war against Texas
o The Battle of the Alamo
-- 1836
-- 200 Texans holed up in a mission in modern-day San Antonio
-- surrounded by Santa Anna and his men
-- all Texans killed
-- including Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie
-- gives Texas the motivation to fight
-- inspired a battle cry: “Remember the Alamo!”
o Texans get a leader: Sam Houston
o The Battle of San Jancito
 last battle
 decisive battle
 San Jancito = modern-day Southeast Texas
 Santa Anna surrenders
o treaty signed
 Santa Anna gets his troops out of the territory
 Rio Grande = border between Texas and Mexico
 (will come up later, but the Necuse River was just north of the Rio Grande)

• 1836 – 1846: relations between Mexico and the U.S. very tense
o Texas a separate country at this time
o Santa Anna said he had signed the treaty “under duress” (and therefore wasn’t completely valid)
o Texas still petitioning for independence

USH - Manifest Destiny - Church

2008-03-29T19:34:00.001-04:00

• same time period as the development of art and literature

• belief that God had given us (Americans) the right to own all the land between the two oceans

• starts right after the war

• took off in the middle of the century

• John L. O’Sullivan
o coined the phrase “Manifest Destiny”
o 1845

• U.S. doesn’t technically own all this land

• painting: “Manifest Destiny”
o star on forehead… new states
o bringing education & learning (books)
o bringing technology (telegraph wire)
o lighter colors in east because that was what was known (the familiar)

• who went west?
o farmers
o miners
o woodsmen
o hunters
o trappers
o typical families (covered wagons)
o outlaws (no law out there yet)

• railroads moving west

• Native Americans and buffalo herds being pushed farther away

USH - Development of American Art and Literature - Church

2008-03-29T19:29:00.001-04:00

Background
• 1815… had just finished fighting the War of 1812
• strong sense of nationalism
• America’s strong sense of identity begins to develop
o not just through politics, but also through art and literature
• artists were creating national heroes and national history
• most portraits created while the person was still alive
• reasons for the increase in art and literature
o more leisure time
o advent of public education (Horace Mann… see ID sheet)
o lighting added to more houses (more time to read, draw, write, etc.) [gas lamps]
• mostly in the North and the Northeast

American Art Developed
• several artists of importance developed their style during this period: 1815 – 1860

Gilbert Stuart
• famous for portraits/paintings
• the most famous of his portraits are of George Washington
o one of these was the portrait that Dolly Madison saved
• also painted… Adams, Marshall, etc.
• painted them as regal, royal, etc.

John Trumbull
• pictures of the Revolutionary War
• battle scenes: action
• show what war was really like (dead, dying)
• picture of the signing of the Declaration of Independence
• picture of the surrender at Yorktown

Emanuel Leutze
• painting of George Washington the Delaware River
o (the one with the ice on the river)
o portrays Washington as almost god-like

Hudson River School
• in the Hudson River Valley, New York
• art school
• American artists started to paint and draw in an “American” style
• famous for landscape portraits (many were of the river valley)

George Caitlin
• western landscapes
• Native Americans
o portrayed them as proud, powerful, etc.

John James Audobon
• American naturalist (one of the first)
• drawings of birds (catalogued thousands of species of birds)

Development of American Literature
• distinctive American literature develops at this time

James Fennimore Cooper
• stories dealing with the frontier and Native Americans
• “The Last of the Mohicans”

Nathaniel Hawthorne
• “The Scarlet Letter”
• Puritanism
• New England setting
• “The House of the Seven Gables”

Washington Irving
• “Rip Van Winkle”
• “Legend of Sleepy Hollow”

Herman Melville
• “Moby Dick”

Edgar Allen Poe
• “The Raven”
• (and so much more!)

Ralph Waldo Emerson
• transcendentalist
o get in touch with the inner self
o get back to nature
o focus on basic needs

Henry David Thoreau
• transcendentalist
o get in touch with the inner self
o get back to nature
o focus on basic needs

Noah Webster
• dictionary

APES Biological Energy Flow / Nutrient Cycles - Shope

2008-02-08T17:57:00.000-05:00

• 2 basic principles of ecosystem sustainability
o energy must be obtained from the sun & cycled through the system
o nutrients needed for survival and reproduction must be recycled

Vocabulary

• trophic
o nutrition or feeding level
o trophic levels, food chains, pyramid of energy flow

• GPP (Gross Primary Productivity)
o the total rate at which producers are able to convert solar energy

• NPP (Net Primary Productivity)
o the remaining biomass (energy) that is available after the producers have used energy for their own respiration

• producers or autotrophs
o photosynthetic organisms
o first trophic level
o plants, algae, phytoplankton

• consumers or heterotrophs
o herbivores, carnivores, scavengers, detritivores, saprophytes, decomposers

• detritivores (debris)
o organisms that feed on partially decomposed matter
o ex.: crabs, termites

• saprophytes
o plants or fungi that feed on decomposing matter

• decomposers
o bacteria & fungi that break down organic matter into the chemical components

APES Population Test Review - Shope

2008-02-06T23:19:00.000-05:00

(chapter 8 in textbook)

vocabulary
o population
• crash
• density
• explosion
• momentum
• change
• dispersion/distribution
• dynamics
o dieback/overshoot
o immigration/emigration
o predator/prey
o doubling time
o J & S curves
o exponential growth
o mathusian growth (same as exponential)
o environmental resistance
o carrying capacity
o ZPG
o CBR/CDR
o fertility/fercundity
o prolific
o habitat fragmentation
o k & r reproduction
o type I (human), II, III (insect) survivorship
o biotic potential
o intrinsic growth
o replacement fertility
o natality/mortality
o monoculturing (homogenizing)
o opportunistic species
o island biography

topics
o graph population pyramids
o graph survivorship/reproduction patterns
o compute…
• growth rates & doubling times
• future populations from growth rates
• population estimates per mark/recapture
o demographic transitions & distribution patterns
o human influences

formulas
o (doubling time) = (70) / (% growth rate)

o (% growth rate) = (70) / (doubling time)

o (final population) = (starting population) ( (1.(% growth rate) to the (number of years) degree)

o (population size) = ( (size first sample) (size second sample) ) / (recaptured)

APES Human Influences on Natural Populations - Shope

2008-02-06T23:10:00.000-05:00

1. reducing biodiversity
• habitat destruction
• habitat fragmentation
• habitat degradation

2. simplifying (homogenizing) ecosystems
• monoculturing (extensive in agriculture)
• opportunistic species (better able to adapt)

3. alteration of Earth’s net primary productivity (basics)

4. strengthening pest/disease species (ex.: MDR bacteria)

5. elimination predators

6. introducing alien (nonnative) species

7. overharvesting

8. interference with natural chemical cycles

9. substituting nonrenewable for renewable energy

APES Reproductive Strategies - Shope

2008-02-06T23:05:00.000-05:00

• “r” strategy
o high birth rate
o short life span
o short gestation
o no parental care
o early reproductive age
o ex.: mayflies, insects, fish, weeds

• “k” strategy
o low birth rate
o long life span
o long gestation
o moderate to high parental care
o late reproductive maturity
o ex.: mammals, birds

APES Populations Vocab Part 2 - Shope

2008-02-03T13:32:00.000-05:00

Thanks to Vaishali for typing these up and sending them to me! It's nice to only have to mess with the formatting, rather than try to actually read the notes I took in class. :)

• Immigration
o new individuals moving into an established population

• Emigration
o individuals leaving a population

• Population Change
o (Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)

• Environmental Resistance
o all the factors that combine to limit the size of the population
o (the sum of the limiting factors)

• Biotic Potentials
o capacity for growth of a population

• Intrinsic Rate
o the ability for a population growth with unlimited resources available

• Population distribution
o clumped – living in clusters or packed together
o random – living in scattered geographical areas
o uniform – living within evenly spaced areas

• Doubling Time
o time it takes for the population to double
--> Doubling Time = (70) / (% growth rate)
--> % growth rate = (70) / (number of years )

Stat. Sampling Distribution - Cooney

2008-01-29T19:26:00.000-05:00

• mean of a population
o parameter
o (mu)

• mean of a sample
o statistic
o (x-bar)

• parameter --> population
• statistic --> sample

• sampling bias
o unbiased = the center of the sampling distribution is equal to the mean of the population

• sampling distribution
o the distribution of values taken by the statistics in all possible samples of the same size from the same population

• central limit theorem
o when n is large, (x-bar) is close to normal even if the population is not normal
o (n = sample size)

Stat. Geometric Distributions - Cooney

2008-01-29T19:21:00.000-05:00

notes from textbook section 8.2: The Geometric Distribution

• a random variable X is geometric provided that the following conditions are met:
o each observation falls into one of just two categories, which for convenience we call “success” or “failure”
o the probability of a success, call it p, is the same for each observation
o the observations are all independent
o the variable of interest is the number of trials required to obtain the first success

• calculating geometric probabilities
o given that it’s geometric (see above), the probability that the first success occurs on the nth trial…
o P (X = n) = (1 – p)^(n-1) • p

• mean of a geometric random variable
o 1 / p
o a.k.a. the “expected value”

• variance
o (1-p) / p^2

• the probability that it takes more than n trials to see the first success is…
o P (X > n) = (1 – p)^n

• the sum of a geometric sequence
o (a) / (1 – r)
o a = probability (success)
o p = probability (failure)

APES Population Growth - Shope

2008-01-29T19:09:00.000-05:00

Thomas Robert Malthus

• late 1700s / early 1800s

• educated (Harvard); from England

• “Essays on the Principles of Populations”
o 1798
o he was concerned about the rapidly growing population (early stages of industrial revolution)
o originally concerned with food & carrying capacity
o then concerned with being able to afford the population

• “In nature, more offspring are produced than can survive.”

• developed our modern ideas about population & population growth

• logistic growth
o populations tend to expand until they reach the carrying capacity (k), then level off
o arithmetic
o “S” curve

• exponential growth
o how humans are reproducing
o geometric
o “J” curve

• overshoot growth
o population rises then suddenly… a dieback/crash
o after crash: either recovery or extinction

APES Demographic Transitions - Shope

2008-01-29T19:01:00.000-05:00

• pre-industrial
o high birth rate
o high death rate

• transitional
o high birth rate
o low death rate

• industrial
o low birth rate
o low death rate

• post-industrial
o birth rate lower than or equal to the death rate
o zpg = zero population growth
o replacement fertility: 2.1 children per couple

APES Populations Vocab - Shope

2008-01-29T18:59:00.000-05:00

• population
o a group of the same species in the same area

• demography (demographics)
o the statistical study of populations, especially with reference to size, density, distribution, and vital statistics (birth, death, age, sex, health)

• population momentum
o potential for growth as young members reach reproductive age

• population explosion
o an increase in population at an exponential rate, usually surpassing the carrying capacity

• population crash
o a sudden decline in population caused by predation, waste accumulation, disease, resource depletion, or environmental change
o a.k.a. dieback

• carrying capacity
o the maximum population that can be supported within a habitat
o graphically abbreviated as “k”

• natality
o birth or death rates

• crude birth rate
o the number of individuals born per 1000
o abbreviated: CBR

• crude death rate
o the number of individuals died per 1000
o abbreviated: CDR

• fertility
o the ability for reproduction
o almost synonymous with “fercundity”

• fercundity
o the capacity for reproduction
o almost synonymous with “fertility”

• prolific
o producing large numbers of offspring or reproducing frequently

APES Test Review - Shope

2008-01-03T16:14:00.001-05:00

• vocabulary
o species
o population
o community
o habitat
o niche
o fundamental niche
o realized niche
o native / nonnative species
o indicator species
o keystone species
o resource partitioning
o niche overlap
o interspecific competition
o predation
o symbiosis
o mutation
o commensalisms
o primary succession
o secondary succession
o allogenic
o autogenic
o pioneer species
o early succession
o mid-succession
o late succession
o climax community
o speciation
o genetic persistence
o gene pool
o coevolution
o mass extinction events

• topics
o know the Hardy-Weinberg principle
o be able to compute gene frequency
o be able to describe natural selection
o be able to explain symbiosis
o know the four major geologic eras

APES Hardy-Weinberg Principle - Shope

2008-01-03T16:12:00.000-05:00

• the frequency of a gene in a population will stay the same if:
1. there is no migration
2. there is random mating
3. there is no mutation
4. there is a large population
5. the phenotype (trait) does not affect survival

• p = most common gene – usually dominant

• q = least common gene – usually recessive

• p2 + 2pq + q2  available phenotypes
o p2 – homozygous dominant (usually)
o 2pq - heterozygous
o q2 – homozygous recessive (usually)

APES Succession - Shope

2008-01-03T16:11:00.000-05:00

• succession: a gradual change in species composition in a given area

• primary succession
o establishment of a biotic community in an area which has had no life before

• secondary succession
o re-establishment of life in an area where life was previously present

• pioneer species
o plants which attach to bare rock and begin the process of succession

• early successive plants
o moss, lichens, grasses

• mid successional plants
o shrubs, herbs, tall grasses

• late successional plants
o trees & shade-tolerant plants

• climax community
o the final stage of succession
o ex.: oak-hickory forest or maple-birch forest

• allogenic succession
o succession cause by an environmental change

• autogenic succession
o succession caused by an environmental change and a change in the plant life

APES Inter-Species Competition & Niche Overlap - Shope

2008-01-03T16:09:00.000-05:00

(See worksheet.)

• results…
o competitive exclusion… one species must:
- migrate
- change (feeding or behavior)
- decline in population
- become extinct
o resource partitioning

• two types of competition
o interference
- one species limits resources access to other species
- territorialist
o exploitive
- one species is better at using a resource

• partitioning
o difference species use different parts of a resource
o ex.: birds in a tree

• variations in population
o stabilizing selection
- ex.: birds feed on largest and smallest spiders… thus stabilizing that population
o directional selection
- small-billed woodpeckers die off because their beaks are too short to reach
o disruptive selection
- “diversifying”
- selection against the average
- takes out middle values
- ex.: one hump to two humps (one high, one low)

APES Communities, Populations, Interactions - Shope

2008-01-03T16:02:00.000-05:00

• species
o organisms that are similar in nature and are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
- generalist species
• those with a broad niche
• can survive under varied conditions
- specialist species
• live in narrow, specific niches
o examples…
- horse and donkey are different species… their offspring (mule) is infertile
- all dogs are the same species

• population
o all members of a species living in a certain area

• community
o all of the different species (populations) living in a certain area

• niche (rhymes with “rich”)
o the lifestyle of species… where and how it lives
- fundamentalist niche
• the potential life if all parameters are optimal
- realized niche
• actual life of a species (after competition)

• species within ecosystems
o native
- organisms that normally live and thrive and have done so for some time
o nonnative
- a.k.a.: alien, exotic, invasive
- organisms that have been brought into an area, usually as a result of human activity
o indicator
- a species that can work (‘provide’) as an alert or warning of a problem
- ex. amphibians – occupy two habits (land & water)
o keystone
- a species that is more important than its biomass or abundance would indicate
- some people believe that there are no true keystone species
- alligator may be a keystone species

• competition
o interspecific
- a.k.a.: niche overlap
- competition between different species for the same resource
- predation
o symbiosis
- “same life”
- parasitism – one harmed, one benefited
- mutualism – two benefited
- commensalism – one benefited, one indifferent

APES Extinction - Shope

2008-01-03T16:00:00.000-05:00

• Endangered Species Act
o one of the most powerful pieces of legislation ever enacted (in US)
o controversial
o designed to protect habitats (and, therefore, species)

• we do not know all species, nor do we know how many there are (we can’t even accurately guess)

• 99.99% of all species to ever exist are currently extinct

• about 10 major mass extinctions in Earth’s history (60 % - 70% of species died)

• about 5 super (mass) extinctions

• eras (geological time scale… mya = million years old)
o Pre-cambrian (600 mya)
o Paleozoic (225 mya)
o Mesozoic (65 mya)
o Cenozoic (0.1 mya)

• Cambrian Explosion
o 500 mya
o invertebrate life (multi-cellular) started from bacteria & single-celled eukaryotes in ocean
o first fish

• biggest extinction in history
o about 250 mya
o wiped out about 96% of all life on earth
o just before time of dinosaurs

• KT Extinction
o end of the dinosaurs
o no one knows exactly what happened… asteroid? volcanoes? mammals feeding on dinosaur eggs?

• most extinctions (causes)
o change climate (getting hotter or colder)
o lots of dust in the air
o we don’t exactly know

• we may be starting the 6th massive extinction

APES Speciation and Natural Selection - Shope

2008-01-03T15:44:00.000-05:00

• natural selection
o the principle that characteristics of species are determined by environmental conditions
- gradualist model = “slow change”
- punctuated equilibrium = “sudden change”

• adaptive radiation
o species evolving to fill niches (often following mass extinction)

• microevolution
o small genetic changes in a population

• macroevolution
o long term, large-scale changes

• background extinction (natural extinction)
o natural elimination of a species
o usually 1 – 10 species per year

• mass extinction
o widespread global extinction
o 25% - 75% of all species

• speciation
o development of 2 or more species from one ancestor
o geographic isolation: a population becomes divided by geologic events and evolves into different species
o reproductive isolation: within a population, genetic mutations prevent breeding

• genetic persistence
o retention and transfer of DNA material throughout time

• gene pool
o sum total of genes possessed by an individual or population

• coevolution
o 2 or more species interacting and causing each to change

APES Tropical Infectious Diseases Research - Shope

2007-12-08T00:21:00.000-05:00

Tropical Infectious Diseases - Research

• A – Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
o vector: Tsetse fly

o symptoms
• massive stimulation of immune system
• generalized pain, weakness, cramps
• swelling of neck lymph nodes
• apathy, mental dullness
• tremors, convulsions
• sleepiness, coma
• rapid weight loss

o Sub-Saharan Africa
o 20,000 new cases a year

• B – Schistosomiasis
o parasitic disease
o leads to chronic ill health
o Central China & Egypt… other developing countries as well
o documented existence since the time of the Egyptian pharaohs
o indicated by blood in urine or serious complications involving the liver and spleen
o infected by contact with water used in normal daily activities (hygiene, swimming, fishing, irrigation, etc.)
o infected individuals may contaminate their water supply with feces or urine due to lack of information or insufficient attention to hygiene

• C – Lassa Fever
o acute viral illness
o West Africa
o zoonotic (rodent)

o transferred through…
• direct contact with rodent’s urine or droppings
• touching objects or eating food contaminated with these materials
• open cuts or sores

o endemic (constantly present)
o mild, no symptoms in 80% of infected people

o symptoms present 1 – 3 weeks later
• varied and non-specific
• fever
• sore throat
• back pain, abdominal pain
• cough
• vomiting, diarrhea
• hearing loss, tremors

o 100,000 – 300,000 new cases per year

• D – Filariasis
o caused by parasitic worms transmitted by mosquitoes
o extremely rare in Western countries

o biggest symptom: elephantiasis
• thickening of skin and underlying tissues
• caused when parasites lodge in the lymphatic system
• mainly affects lower extremities
• not known to be fatal, though it can cause a fair amount of pain

o other symptoms
• swelling (lymph nodes, arm, leg, etc.)
• fever, aches, pain
• thickened skin
• warty skin appearance

o endemic in tropical regions of Asia, Africa, Central America, South America
o 120 million people infected

• E – River Blindness
o world’s second leading infectious cause of blindness
o caused by a parasitic worm that can live in the body for up to 15 years

o symptoms
• skin: intense itching, swelling, inflammation, loss of elasticity
• blindness
• skin cancer

o West and Central Africa
o about 18 million infected… 300,000 irreversibly blind

• F – West Nile Virus
o tropical and temperate regions
o mainly infects birds
o main route to human infection: via mosquito

o symptoms
• nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea
• tiredness, decreased level of consciousness (near-coma), coma
• stupor, disorientation
• fever, headache
• skin rash (trunk of body)
• neck stiffness
• tremors, convulsions
• muscle weakness, paralysis

o symptoms generally last for a few days
o deadly if it enters the brain

• G – SARS
o Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
o has been one near pandemic in 2002/2003
o originated in China

o symptoms
• initially are flu-like
• high fever (above 100.4F)
• lethargy
• muscle pain
• gastrointestinal symptoms
• cough, sore throat

o caused by virus from same family as the common cold
o much more harmful to animals than humans
o airborne

• H – Trichinosis
o parasitic disease
o caused by: eating raw or undercooked pork and wild game infected with larvae
o person-person spread doesn’t occur

o symptoms (usually 10 – 14 days after infection)
• fever
• muscle soreness
• pain and swelling around eyes
• thirst
• profuse sweating, chills
• weakness, tiredness
• chest pain

o partial immunity may develop
o fatal if not treated

• I – Prions
o infectious agents composed of only protein
o cause a number of diseases in a variety of animals
o cause neurodegenerative disease
o “holes” in normal tissue structure
o very long incubation period
o once symptoms appear, the disease progresses rapidly… leading to brain damage and death

o symptoms include
• convulsions
• dementia
• ataxia (balance and coordination dysfunction)
• behavioral or personality changes

o primary transmission unknown… may be ingestion

APES Environmental Toxins - Shope

2007-12-07T23:48:00.001-05:00

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS

• Mercury (Hg)
o manufacturing, mining, burning coal
o high levels in some fish (large predatory fish) due biomagnification
o neurotoxin… causes brain damage

• Lead (Pb)
o paints, manufacturing, some gasoline
o neurotoxin (especially harmful to children)

• DDT (DDD, DDE)
o insecticide
o systematic (general) poison – affects all systems in the body
o nervous system, liver, kidney
o now only used when approved… to combat very high risk of malaria

• PCB
o electrical manufacturing
o high levels in some fish
o nervous system, thyroid, hormone problems
o still used… just controlled

• Dioxin
o a family of 70+ chemicals
o pesticides, manufacturing, burning
o cancer, neurological problems
o “Agent Orange” - used in warfare to immediately kill forests
o kills rodents, insects, weeds

• VOC
o volatile organic compounds
o higher levels indoors
o carpets, paints, cosmetics, cleaning fluids
o cancer, respiratory problems, neurological
o some are naturally produced by plants
o plants communicate via chemicals

• asbestos
o insulation
o cancer, respiratory problems

• heavy metals
o drinking water, pesticides, antiperspirants
o cancer, neurological problems
o can be released from soil/rock by acids

APES Health Toxins General Notes - Shope

2007-12-07T23:32:00.000-05:00

HEALTH TOXINS

• morbidity
o causing disease

• mortality
o causing death (death rates)

• toxins
o poisons/chemicals that have adverse health effects

• toxicology
o the study of poisons

• toxicity
o the measure of how harmful a poison is

• note: all chemicals can be considered toxins at some level

• classes of toxins
o A – asphyxiants – toxins that interfere with breathing
o B – allergens – toxins that cause a physical reaction as an immune response
o C – neurotoxins – damage or paralyze nerves
o D – irritants – inflame skin or epithelial tissue
o e – mutagens – toxins causing damage to DNA
o f – teratagens – toxins causing birth defects
o g – carcinogens – cancer causing

• LD50
o a measure of toxicity
o the amount of a chemical that will cause death in 50% of the a population
o usually measured in milligrams of toxins per kilogram of body weight
o ex.: give toxin to lab rat… this it the point at which 50% of them die

• ED50
o the amount needed to have a certain effect on 50% of the population
o effect can be good (cure) or bad (headaches, nausea)

• dose – response
o linear – slope depending on severity
o threshold – tolerance until a certain point… most substances have this

• bioaccumulation
o an increase in the concentration of a chemical over time
o it occurs when a chemical is taken in faster than it can be eliminated
o usually occurs with fat soluble chemicals

• biomagnification
o chemical becomes more concentrated as it moves up food chain
o ex.: the concentration of DDT in the fatty tissues of organisms in a food chain (studied by Rachel Carson)

• Thalidomide
o 1960s
o popular in Europe
o came to US… approved by FDA
o given to pregnant women to fight nausea
o causes birth defects in children: teratagen
o was banned but is now being used (carefully) to treat some adult neurological disorders (?)

APES Infectious Diseases (STDs) - Shope

2007-12-07T23:29:00.000-05:00

STDs

• sexually transmitted diseases

• bacterial – Chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis

• viral – genital warts, genital herpes, hepatitis B, AIDS

• #1 STD in US = Chlamydia… relatively curable (with antibiotics)

APES Infectious Diseases (fungal/parasitic) - Shope

2007-12-07T23:16:00.000-05:00

FUNGAL / PARASITIC

o mycoses
• scientific term for fungal diseases
• can lie dormant for years until touched

o “curse of the pharaohs”
• scientists and tomb raiders opened tombs
• breathed in air full of ancient fungal spores
• got very sick

o worms
• 60% of human population of the world is infected with some type of worm… most: unknowingly
• some help (aid digestion, etc.)
• a parasite
• won’t try to kill host… it would die too

APES Infectious Diseases (protozoan) - Shope

2007-12-07T23:15:00.000-05:00

PROTOZOAN

o malaria
• spread via mosquitoes
• living creature
• produces spores
• spores attach to liver
• destroys red blood cells
• not lethal for healthy person
• major killer for little children, babies
• about 110 kids/babies die each hour from malaria

APES Infectious Diseases (bacterial) - Shope

2007-12-07T23:07:00.000-05:00

BACTERIAL

o tuberculosis
• TB
• #1 killer, as far as infectious diseases go
• was gone…
• is now coming back

o tetanus
• mostly gone in modern world
• “lockjaw”
• total muscle contraction

o typhus & typhoid fever
• typhus = lungs
• typhoid fever = diarrheal
• “disaster disease”

o bubonic plague
• #1 epidemic killer of all time
• “black death”
• killed 1 in 3 Europeans
• used in combat/war

o anthrax
• zoonotic (mostly cattle disease)
• attacks lungs
• not airborne
• big scare after 9-11

o cholera
• diarrheal
• infection of food, water
• mutates rapidly
• gets milder (or can get milder)

o leprosy / Hansen’s disease
• almost gone
• close to TB

o diphtheria
• “disaster disease”
• airborne
• blisters on lungs

o whooping cough
• fairly common
• respiratory

o lyme
• from tick
• 1st case in Lyme, Connecticut (hence the name)

APES Infectious Diseases (viral) - Shope

2007-12-07T22:36:00.000-05:00

Infectious Diseases – major / historically significant / common / communicable (transmissible) disease

VIRAL

o HIV / AIDS
• number 2 epidemic disease
• can lie dormant for (long) time before becoming active

o Hepatitis (A, B, C, D, E)
• A – minor, relatively common… especially in children
• B & C – very serious
• D – very rare (often mutation of B or C)
• E – almost non-existent (has never been a case in the US)
• spread by… physical contact (with the exception of A: spread by ingestion… dirty food, putting dirty hands in mouth, etc.)

o smallpox
• now “extinct” (aside from some in a fridge in Atlanta, Moscow)
• transmitted by airborne virus
• used in combat/war
• officially announced that it was gone – 1980
• first disease for which a vaccine was developed…

o Edward Jenner
• British physician in the late 1700s
• traveled country healing people
• noticed that most girls (milkmaids) didn’t have smallpox
• they had contracted cowpox and developed immunity
• meanwhile… inoculation (smallpox: prick skin = immune?)
• Jenner heard about this
• took scrape of smallpox
• heated (weakened) sample then injected into healthy person
• 1st vaccine – 1790
• even vaccinated his own son
• “credited with saving more people than any other in history” (i)

o herpes
• about 8 strains known… HHV = “human herpes virus”
• is a retrovirus: viral DNA attaches to host DNA and becomes part of the genetic make-up of host
• HHV-1 – cold… cold sores = excess protein produced; permanent
• HHV-2 – genital herpes
• HHV-3 – chicken pox
• HHV-4 – Epstein-Barr (mononucleosis, “mono”, “kissing disease”)
• HHV-5, HHV-6, HHV-7 – cause rashes

o rabies
• one of the oldest known diseases
• no cure
• only preventative treatment soon after bite
• if not pretreated… most likely fatal: only one known survivor after the fact (and he had brain damage)

o polio
• mostly gone… few/none in the US in the last 40-50 years
• making a comeback
• devastating in US in 1940s/1950s
• nerve disease
• kills nerves “instantly” (within hours… go to bed fine, wake up paralyzed)
• ex.: FDR
• mostly children… killing or crippling
• Jonas Salk created plan to fight polio – completely “kill” (destroy all DNA) of virus before injection, not just weakening it
• still must be immunized before entering school

o cold / rhinovirus
• over 300 types
• can’t get the same type more than once
• no cure

o influenza
• zoonotic disease (we get it from animals)
• differs from year to year, depending on animal of origin
• most start in China/Asia
• current: avian flu… not yet airborne

o pneumonia
• can be bacterial or viral
• #1 killer of… people with immunological diseases (ex. AIDS), people with cancer, older people

o measles, rubella, mumps
• vaccine necessary before entering school: “MMR”
• rubella = “German measles”… mostly dangerous for pregnant women

o dengue – hemorrhagic fever
• causes bleeding… sometimes even through eyes
• very deadly
• 2 strains: 1 causes sickness, other immediately causes death

o Ebola
• causes bleeding
• very deadly
• has developed 5th strain
• not yet airborne
• mostly Africa (Zaire)

o yellow fever
• transferred via mosquito
• big problem in Central America
• vaccine was created so workers could build Panama Canal

APES Infectious Disease General Notes - Shope

2007-12-07T21:50:00.000-05:00

For ease of formatting, this chapter is broken up into sections and different spacing and numbering has been changed. If you want me to send you a copy of the full notes in one document, just let me know!

• 5 classes of infectious disease
o A – blood borne – HIV
o B – respiratory – TB
o C – diarrheal – cholera
o D – parasitic – malaria
o E – contact - STDs

• disease vectors (vector = a mode of transfer; how a disease is carried)
o insects – mosquito, tick, etc.
o water/food – usually intestinal diseases
o airborne – usually respiratory diseases

• 4 classes of pathogens (pathogen = anything causing disease)
o bacteria
o virus
o parasites – worms, fungus
o protozoans
o note: some chemicals cause disease but are classified as toxins

• epidemiology
o the branch of medicine dealing with the study and control of disease

• epidemic
o a widespread disease

• pandemic
o an epidemic in a very wide area (a country or the entire world)

• endemic
o (of a people); restricted to a local population or group

• Lister
o late 1800s
o campaigned for more cleanliness on part of doctors
o (at a time when people didn’t worry about germs, etc.)

• Tuberculosis (TB)
o #1 infectious disease
o has killed more people than any other disease
o a.k.a. “consumption”
o (more notes on TB later)

• worst epidemic diseases… #1 = bubonic plague, #2 = HIV/AIDS

• drug resistance
o MDR = multi-drug resistant
o DR = drug resistant
o MR = multi-resistant
o ex. – MRSA

Phys Electrostatics Notes - Modine

2007-12-02T17:40:00.000-05:00

Electrostatics

1. Electrostatic or Static Charge

2. Law of Charges
• opposites attract
• likes repel

3. Types of Charges
• positive
• negative
• neutral

4. Insulator
• object that electricity will not pass through
• has high resistance
• ex.: wood, rubber, pure water, plastic, fiberglass, glass

5. Conductor
• allows electricity to pass
• ex.: metals, silver (absolute best), silicon (computer chips)

6. Charging
• induction = charging without contact
• conduction = charging with contact
• grounding = electricity wants to find path of least resistance to the ground

7. Coulomb’s Law
• F = ( (k)(q1)(q2) ) / ( (r2) )
• F is F (sub e)
• k = constant = 9.0 x 109
• q = charge
• r = distance between charges

8. Charge of an Electron
• e- = 1.6 x 10-19 c
• c = Coulombs (unit for charge)

9. Total Charge
• Q = (N) (e-)
• Q = total charge
• N = 3 of e-

10. Electrical Field

Esp5 Test 2 General Comments - Calvar

2007-11-17T22:42:00.000-05:00

• be careful with verb endings
• mi --> a mí
• the news = las noticias
• the business = el negocio
• a company = una compañía
• hace : present or preterit
• hacía : imperfect
• es bueno que… : use subjunctive
• novio = groom, (boyfriend)
• novia = bride, (girlfriend)
• telling a story = contar el cuento (NOT decir)
• the rule = la regla
• only use the usted form if specifically told
• candy = los dulces
• mom = mama (only use “madre” if asked for “mother”)
• hand her the papers = entrégaselos

Esp5 Test Two Accent Marks - Calvar

2007-11-17T22:41:00.001-05:00

Héctor
sábado
helicóptero
álbum
diurético
llévemelo
dígamelo
causa
oiga
suave
fuerte
cómelo
murciélago
héroe
teatro
conductor
abrigo
desafinado
fácilmente
sobrenatural

Esp5 Test Two Verbs - Calvar

2007-11-17T22:28:00.000-05:00

adquirir – to acquire
almorzar – to have lunch
atraer – to attract
caber – to fit
confiar – to entrust, confide
conmover – to move, touch
contar – to tell, count
convencer – to convince
despedirse – to say goodbye
despertarse – to wake (up)
detener – to stop, halt
distinguir – to recognize, distinguish
doler – to hurt, ache
establecer – to establish
estremecerse – to shudder, tremble
exigir – to demand
fingir – to pretend
gemir – to groan
gobernar – to govern
graduarse – to graduate
hervir – to boil
huir – to run away, flee
impedir – to impede, hinder
incluir – to include
influir – to influence
jugar – to play
lucir – to shine, wear, display
medir – to measure
mentir – to lie, tell lies
mover – to move
nevar – to snow
oír – to hear
oler – to smell
oponerse – to be opposed, object
padecer – to suffer from
perseguir – to chase, persecute, pursue
quebrar – to break
reír – to laugh
remendar – to mend, patch
reñir – to quarrel, argue
resfriarse – to catch (a) cold
resolver – to resolve
soler – to be in the habit of
tener – to have
tronar – to thunder
vencer – to defeat, beat, overcome
volar – to fly

Esp5 Test Two Translations - Calvar

2007-11-17T22:09:00.000-05:00

1. He disappears from the room as easily as he appears.
El desaparece del cuarto tan fácilmente como aparece.

2. I loathe injustice.
Yo aborrezco la injusticia.

3. The woman translates for an international company.
La mujer traduce para una compañía internacional.

4. I don’t lack anything; thank God.
No me falta nada, gracias a Dios.

5. We have been waiting for the news since yesterday.
Desde ayer, hemos estado esperando las noticias.

6. How long has it been since the business has established itself?
¿Desde cuándo hace que el negocio se estableció?

How long has it been since the business has established itself?
¿Cuánto tiempo hace que el negocio se ha establacido?

7. I don’t tell lies.
No miento.

I don’t tell lies.
No digo mentiras.

8. In the spring the crops bloom.
Las cosechas florecen en la primavera.

9. It’s good that he produces enough money.
Es bueno que él produzca suficiente dinero.

10. We’ve been resting since half an hour ago.
Hemos estado descansado desde hace media hora.

11. Why does your boyfriend say such things?
¿Por qué dice tu novio tales cosas?

12. I deserve the award because I worked for it.
Merezco el premio porque trabajé duro por él.

APES Geology Rocks Vocab - Shope

2007-11-08T23:50:00.000-05:00

Geology Rocks!

• magma
o molten rock formed beneath the earth’s crust
o creates igneous rock

• extrusive
o rock formed by flowing magma such as from a volcano

• intrusive
o rock formed by “injected” magma as into a fissure or crevice

• igneous
o (fire, ignite)
o rock formed from melted materials

• metamorphic
o (meta = change, morph = form)
o altered rock, formed from different materials

• sedimentary
o (sediment = settled particles)
o rock formed from action of water

• detrital material
o rock formed from small material washed away then solidified

• lithification
o the process of forming rocks

• foliation
o (foliage = plants, leaves)
o rocks forming in “leaf-like” layers
o i.e.: shale

APES Unit Outline - Shope

2007-11-08T23:47:00.000-05:00

Unit Outline

A. Earth’s Structure
• layers
• composition
• topography (contour maps)
• landforms

B. Crustal Movement
• plate tectonics
• volcanism & earthquakes

C. Soil
• formation/weathering/erosion
• types
• horizon

D. Rocks & Minerals
• rock cycle

E. Earth’s Resources

Esp5 Practice Sentences - Calvar

2007-11-05T21:57:00.000-05:00

He likes me.
Yo le gusto.

I have never liked avocado, but my family likes them.
Nunca me han gustado los aguacates pero a mi familia les gustan.

Paco really likes you.
Tú le gustas a Pedro.

If he didn’t like me, I would cry.
Si yo no le gustará, yo lloraría.

That I may like him is not the issue.
Que él me guste no es el asunto.

Stat. Steps to Determine if Data is Exponential - Cooney

2007-10-22T17:58:00.000-04:00

1. graph x and y

2. ratio test
• copy L2 into L3
• copy L2 into L4
• delete first number of L3
• delete last number of L4
• L5 = L3/L4
• common ration = mean of L5 (1-var stat. of L5)

3. graph x, logy
• clear L3, L4, L5
• L3 = log(L2)
• check to see if transformed data is linear… must be on statement of proof: “The transformed data appears to be (roughly/strongly/etc.) linear. Therefore the original data is exponential.”
• graph L1, L3

4. calculate linear regression of x and logy
• (y hat) = a + bx
• (stat  calc  8  L1, L3, Y1)
• put line on graph (step 3)

5. residual plot to determine if truly linear (graph x, resid)
• resid: 2nd  stat  8

6. pattern or not (random scatter = equally spread above and below line)
• write sentence: “If the residual plot shows random scatter, then the transformed data is linear and therefore the original data is exponential.”

7. write equation log(y hat) = a + bx
• simply write equation from step 4 and put “log” in front of (y hat)

8. inverse transformation
• write in exponential form
• (y hat) = 10 (to the) [a + bx] (power)

9. predict

**reference information from problem!**

APES Oceanography Test Corrections - Shope

2007-10-22T17:25:00.000-04:00

20. Each tide (high and low) usually occur twice daily because…
A. the sun’s gravity adds to the moon’s gravity
B. the moon rotates on its axis twice as fast as the earth
C. the moon orbits the earth in intervals of 12 hours
D. the moon’s gravity pulls the solid earth causing water to rise opposite the moon
E. ocean currents push against the gravity tides causing water to “slosh” up

2. D

Esp5 Una Carta a Dios vocabulario - Calvar

2007-10-22T01:26:00.000-04:00

español - english

un cerro bajo - small mountain (“montañas pequeños”)
cosecha - (crops), harvest
aguacero - rain storm
maduro - ripe
frijol - bean(s)
el corral - corral
gotas - drops
maíz - corn
hacia - towards
la vieja - old lady
Dios lo quiera. - God willing.
avanzar - to advance
cortina - curtain
soplar - to blow
granizos - hail
las perlas heladas - frozen pearls
monedas - coins
exponiéndose - exposing themselves (making available)
de pronto - suddenly
recoger - to pick up, collect
la huerta - garden (of vegetables)
langostas - lobsters
la tempestad - storm
el alma - soul
lamentaciones - (complaining, etc.), lamentations, woe, sadness
mortificado - upset
ojalá que - (I hope that), I wish…
el monte - the field
salado - salty
pasar hambre - to go hungry
afigirse (te aflijas) - to be afflicted
cuyos ojos - whose eyes
fortificado - fortified
una bestia - beast
las conciencias - conscience(s)
rudo - rough (not meaning “rude”)
echar - (to throw), to put; (letter in mailbox)
según - according to
el fondo - depths
sembrar - to plant
dirigida - directed to
golpecitos - taps, hits
el buzón - mailbox
un sello - stamp, (seal)
fe - faith
el sobre - envelope
metió - put in (letter to envelope)
cartero - mailman
gordo y amable - fat and friendly
confianza - confidence
tesoro - treasure
desilusionar - (to disillusion, lose), let down
sueldo - salary
tinta - ink
voluntary - to will
caridad - charity
el campesino - farmer
la mitad - half
entregar - deliever
siguió - continued

APES Atmospheric Pollution & Processes Test Corrections - Shope

2007-10-22T01:12:00.000-04:00

2. Under which of the following conditions would excess ozone be expected?
A. sunny summer day
B. hot overcast day
C. rainy winter day
D. clear warm evening
E. rainy summer day

5. Causes of global temperature change are affected by all of the following except
A. polar ice caps
B. rise of sea levels
C. atmospheric gases
D. combustion of fossil fuels
E. planetary orbit & positioning

8. A change in pH from 4 to 6 would represent
A. increased alkalinity by a factor of 2
B. increased acidity by a factor of 2
C. increased acidity by a factor of 100
D. increased alkalinity by a factor of 100
E. an acid that is 20 times stronger

15. Particulate matter is considered harmful to human health when its size is below
A. 1mm
B. 10mm
C. 10 micrometers
D. 25 micrometers
E. 100 micrometers

16. Thermal inversions are usually short term events caused when
A. warm air moves on top of cool air
B. warm air is trapped between layers of cool air
C. cool air replaces warm air
D. pollutants are trapped in warm air
E. cool and warm air mix and trap pollutants

18. Acid “rain” would have the least damaging effect on which of the following?
A. outside statues and monuments
B. plant life at higher elevations
C. freshwater aquatic life
D. human skin
E. leaves

19. Acid deposition has serious secondary consequences as a result of this effect.
A. it damages living tissue
B. acids change pH of freshwater
C. acids react with alkaline compounds to neutralize soil
D. acids raise normal pH of rain from 5.6
E. acids release toxic elements such as lead, mercury

2. A
5. B
8. D
15. C
16. C
18. D
19. E

APES Pollutants (initial vocab) - Shope

2007-10-22T01:00:00.000-04:00

Like usual, I have the notes with normal formatting (outline form) if anyone's interested.

• pathogens
o disease causing agents often resulting when sewage is untreated or enters waters through storm sewers or by being washed into waters after a rain
o examples:
- bacteria
- virus
- protozoans
- worms

• organic chemicals
o pollutants usually made from petroleum products or otherwise containing hydrocarbon
o examples
- oil
- gas
- plastics
- fertilizers
- detergents

• inorganic chemicals
o water soluble
o acids, salts, and plant nutrients

• toxins
o chemicals that directly poison living things
o includes industrial toxins and household chemicals
o examples
- heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium)
- pesticides

• physical pollutants
o suspended solids such as soil
o usually pollute by interfering with photosynthesis

• miscellaneous pollutants
o radioactive wastes
o heat
o genetic (or new species of organisms)

• Biological (Biochemical) Oxygen Demand = BOD
o the need for living things in water to obtain oxygen dissolved in the water
o BOD varies with the growth and reproductive needs of organisms and the availability of nutrients in the water

Psychology Unit 4 Quiz Corrections - Mason

2007-10-22T00:53:00.001-04:00

2. Which cells are located closest to the back of the retina?
A. feature detectors
B. ganglion cells
C. bipolar cells
D. rodes and cones

2. D

APES Oceanography Notes - Shope

2007-10-16T22:15:00.000-04:00

The formatting here sucks, but I have it nice and pretty (in outline form) with diagrams of the currents if anyone is interested... and if anyone has any questions about this section, let me know. I am obsessed with oceanography. :)

• surface currents are caused by wind (and friction)
• deep currents are caused by density (caused by temperature and salinity): thermohaline circulation; (a.k.a. density currents)

• distribution of water:
o 71% of the Earth is water
o 97% is sea water (salty)
o 3% is freshwater
o 2.997% of which is unavailable for human use (ice, etc.)
o 0.003% available for human use

• salts and ocean water
o about 3.5% of ocean water is composed of salt (saline)
o 85% of that is NaCl (regular table salt)
o also: magnesium, sulfur, calcium, potassium

• the bottom of the ocean is basically a nutrient sink… aquatic organisms die and remains fall to bottom

• aquatic biomes: marine (saltwater) or freshwater
• coastal biomes
o estuaries: main breeding grounds
o marsh: coastal wetlands
o tidal pools: intertidal

• ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) (“baby boy”)
o not an upwelling
o southern trade winds blow warm equatorial water away from South America and towards Asia as they blow northwest (usual)
o this allows the Peruvian current to upwell with cold, nutrient rich water
o ENSO suppresses upwelling (usual)
o generally happens around Christmastime
o warm water returns toward South America (warm air & clouds return too)
o thermocline is lowered
o less nutrients… less phytoplankton… less fish
o air pressure change: low to South America
o occurs roughly every 3-7 years (hasn’t happened in a while)
o provides fuel for evaporation & storm centers in North America… (ex. ENSO in 1998 caused a lot of snow in Charlotte)
o North American climatologists “discovered” it in 1960s… fishermen in South America had known for 100s of years
o weakens trade winds
o ties into monsoon season in Asia (more monsoons)
o cause of ENSO unknown

• La Niña (“baby girl”)
o increase in normal patterns

• tides
o the diurnal (daily) cycle of water movement caused by lunar gravity and modified by solar gravity
o tides vary with the moon’s distance in orbit and with coastal features
o occur at intervals of about six ours each day on most ocean coasts
o really only has noticeable effect on oceans
o hardly any effect on climate, but has big ecological effects
o not constant day to day because of orbits and coastal features

• types of tides
o high & low
o flood – incoming, low to high
o ebb – outgoing, high to low
o spring – highest tide (MEMS)
o neap – lowest tide

• tide frequency
o diurnal – one of each per day
o semidiurnal – two of each per day
o mixed – one & two or two & one

• waves
o the passing of a wave is essentially a transfer of energy
o the water within the wave moves in a circular pattern
o the depth of movement (a.k.a. the depth of the wave) is equal to 1/2 the wavelength
o a wave will “break” when the depth of the wave is about 1/20 the wavelength

• west wind drift – circles Antarctica (a current)

APES Oceanography Vocab - Shope

2007-10-16T22:01:00.000-04:00

littoral: belonging to or found on or near the shore

intertidal: shoreline area between the high and low tide marks

continental shelf: that region of the continental land mass submerged under the ocean

continental slope: the descending drop-off from the continent to the ocean floor

abyssal plain: the bottom of the ocean; the ocean floor; ("abyss" means deep)

seamount: "sea mountain"; often refers to volcanic mountains formed from the abyssal plain

neritic: waters near the shore or coastline

pelagic: the main surface waters of the ocean

benthic: deep ocean waters

gyre: a very large circular flow of water in the ocean; (ring)

thermocline: a layer in a large body of water where the temperature makes a sharp change with a major change in the temperature gradient

halocline: a sharp change in salinity; ("halo" means salt)

plankton: small free floating/drifting aquatic life; vital for life

phytoplankton: photosynthetic (plant) plankton

zooplankton: animal plankton

nekton: swimming (mobile) aquatic life

upwelling: an oceanic process whereby prevailing winds force warm surface water away from coastlines, allowing cool, nutrient rich water to rise to the surface, thus increasing food supplies for aquatic life

wave: the moving swell of water caused by the energy of wind, tides, or currents

wave crest: top (highest point of wave)

wave trough: lowest point between two successive waves

wave height: vertical difference between crest & trough

wave length: horizontal difference between two crests

wave period: elapsed time between two passing crests

wave of oscillation: passage of energy through water without movement of the water; most common type of wave

wave of translation: a near-shore wave that "breaks" causing water to move forward

Psychology Text Notes pg.193-199 - Mason

2007-10-06T22:03:00.000-04:00

sensation – the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception – the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing – analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing – information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

psychophysics – the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience to them

absolute threshold – the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus fifty percent of the time

signal detection theory – a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (“signal”) amid background stimulation (“noise”); assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue

subliminal – below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

difference threshold – the minimum difference between the two stimuli required for detection fifty percent of the time; we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference; also called just noticeable difference or jnd.

Weber’s law – the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

Psychology Test 2 Corrections (Research Methods) - Mason

2007-10-03T20:10:00.001-04:00

20. Which of the following is the measure of variation that is most affected by extreme scores?
A. mode
B. range
C. standard deviation
D. mean

31. Theoretically, random assignment should eliminate
A. the need to use statistics
B. the need for a representative sample
C. concerns over validity
D. many confounding variables

33. The __________ is a measure of ___________.
A. correlation coefficient; central tendency
B. median, central tendency
C. mode; variation
D. mean; variation
E. standard deviation, central tendency

35. The procedure designed to ensure that the experimental and control groups do not differ in any way that might affect the experiment’s results is called
A. representative sampling
B. variable controlling
C. stratification
D. random assignment

48. Given a normal distribution of IQ scores with mean score of 100 and standard deviation of 15: your IQ score is 115, what percentile is your IQ score in?
A. 34th
B. 68th
C. 50th
D. 99th
E. 84th

20. B
31. D
33. B
35. D
48. E

Psychology Test 1 corrections - Mason

2007-09-27T00:27:00.000-04:00

9. In its early years, psychology focused on the study of ________, but from the 1920s through the 1950s, American psychologists emphasized the study of _______.
A. mental processes; observable behavior
B. environmental influences; hereditary influences
C. maladaptive behavior; adaptive behavior
D. unconscious motives; conscious thoughts & feelings

17. Functionalism was a school of psychology that focused attention on the:
A. treatment of psychological disorders
B. adaptive value of conscious thought
C. component elements of sensory experience
D. disruptive effects of unconscious motives

9. A
17. B

APES Biomes Quiz corrections - Shope

2007-09-27T00:26:00.000-04:00

10. Which of the following would be an example of a “cold desert”?
A. sahara
B. gobi
C. pampas
D. veldt
E. savanna

10. B

APES Atmosphere Test Corrections - Shope

2007-09-23T13:57:00.000-04:00

1. The velocity of wind in a certain area would most likely be determined by…
A. Coriolis Force
B. difference in the pressure gradient
C. the temperature
D. convection current direction
E. dew point

3. Earth’s insolation is mostly a variable of
A. earth’s orbital path
B. latitude
C. altitude
D. atmospheric moisture
E. pressure gradients

6. The abundance of tropical rains is principally due to
A. the descending air in the convection cell
B. condensation of vapor in vertically rising warm air
C. air being deflected by the coriolis effect
D. excessive moisture in the cooling air
E. the pressure difference between high and low air masses

8. You observe clouds overhead; which of the following can you determine?
A. the relative humidity is low at ground level
B. the dew point is equal to the ambient air temperature
C. the clouds have a temperature equal to the ambient air temperature
D. the temperature at the cloud base is equal to the dew point
E. the relative humidity must equal the dew point

11. This best explains climatic differences between North-South hemispheres:
A. different convection cells
B. different amounts of land mass
C. reverse wind patterns
D. opposite seasons
E. larger Hadley cells in the North

13. Winds are primarily produced by
A. warm air rising
B. cool air descending
C. the tilt of Earth’s axis
D. the coriolis force
E. the sun

1. B
3. B
6. B
8. D
11. B
13. E

APES Atmosphere (study guide) - Shope

2007-09-14T00:06:00.000-04:00

Considering the fact that everyone on A day has the test tomorrow (or rather, today, considering it's 12:06 AM), I don't think this will be very useful. But anyone who has it on B days?

I have a four-page study guide for the first test on Atmospheres... it has all the notes, the information from the book, and information from the AP book. The formatting doesn't work here, but if anyone reads this before you actually take the test... let me know and I'll happily e-mail it to you.

Good luck on the test!

Sinopsis Order - Calvar

2007-09-11T22:37:00.000-04:00

1. presente
2. pretérito
3. imperfecto
4. presente progresivo
5. imperfecto progresivo
6. presente perfecto
7. pluscuamperfecto
8. futuro perfecto
9. condicional perfecto
10. futuro cercano
11. futuro
12. condicional
13. imperativo/mandatos
14. presente de subjuntivo
15. imperfecto de subjuntivo
16. perfecto de subjuntivo
17. pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo